Reading Disabilities

Teaching Reading to Students
With Learning Disabilities




Abstract

Learning to read is the main goal of primary school.  Most students become accomplished by third grade.  But, some students struggle to read fluently.  The reasons a child may struggle with reading may stem from poor instruction, lack of motivation or having a Learning, specifically a Reading, Disorder.  Nearly 20% of students have a reading disorder, with dyslexia being the most prevalent.  The National Reading Panel strongly recommends the direct instruction of phonemic awareness, phonological awareness, the alphabetic principle, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension to overcome reading problems.
This paper will attempt to answer why some children have difficulties learning to read and the most effective teaching strategies supported by research.  Students failing to learn to read will likely fail at other school subjects and fail to achieve success as adults.








Early Reading
Teaching children to read begins at an early age in the home.  Reading picture books to a child is an important step in the reading process.  By prompting a toddler to discuss pictures in a book, ask questions about the story and retell the story, the child becomes aware, in a hieroglyphic sort of way, that text represents words and words can be read (Armbruster, Lehr & Osborn 2003).  Children with leaning disabilities, from low-income families, and/or English as second language homes often fail to receive this early experience and are already at risk for having reading problems.  Toddlers who are read to at home are several months ahead of their peers when entering school.  However, there is empirical support that students who begin school behind their peers in important areas such as vocabulary and language development can master basic reading skills as quickly and as well as typical peers under optimal instructional conditions (Baker, Simmons, & Kameenui).
The first thing young students learn in school is the alphabet.  They discover how the various letters look, sound, and feel.  The teacher points at each letter during the ABC song for a visual reference.  They are taught that each letter has a certain sound or sounds.  And for a kinesthetic learning experience the students get to practice writing the letters with pencils, paint, chalk and sometimes shaving cream.  The children are also taught that there are two categories of letters: consonants and vowels.  Once all the letters are memorized they can start grouping them together to form words.
Phonemic Awareness
It is imperative to discern the subtle sounds that differentiate words.  The different sounds within words are known as phonemes.  By grouping the phonemes /aaa/ and /ttt/ with the phoneme /hhh/ we get the three phoneme word /hat/.  By regrouping /aaa/ and /ttt/ with the phonemes /th/, /b/, or /c/ we get many more words.  Learning how to correctly rearrange and alter the phoneme or sound to change the articulation of words is phonemic awareness.
Some children fail to recognize these patterns.  Brain studies have revealed that there are three areas of brain functions needed for reading.  The left front part of the brain recognizes phonemes and further back is the area that connects the phoneme sounds to the grapheme representation.  This information is then stored in the long-term memory area of the brain.  Poor readers have difficulty accessing their long-term memory for automatic word recognition.  They rely almost exclusively on the phoneme center and the connection area.  Each time they see a word they must puzzle over it as if they are reading it for the first time.  Brain imaging has also showed “that effective reading instruction not only improves reading ability, but actually changes the brain's functioning so that it can perform reading tasks more efficiently” (National Institute of Health, 2004).
Phonological Awareness
         Phonemic awareness is just one subcategory of phonological awareness (PA).  Phonological awareness is the understanding and manipulation of sounds.  PA is so crucial The National Reading Panel (2000) finds that “correlational studies have identified PA and letter knowledge as the two best school-entry predictors of how well children will learn to read during the first 2 years of instruction” (PA instruction, 2).  Other subcategories are words, syllables, and onsets and rimes
Children with learning disabilities (LD) struggle with the PA process due to their inability to relate letters of the alphabet to the sounds of language.  These students must be explicitly taught the processes of PA and phonemic awareness (Behrmann, 2005).  Explicitly teaching PA begins by demonstrating the relationships of parts to wholes.  Phonemes make up syllables and syllables make up words within sentences.  Syllables are made of rimes and onsets.  Onsets are syllables that precede a vowel (e.g. the h in hat) and rimes are vowels followed by consonants (e.g. at and all).  Phonemes, being the smallest unit of sound, are the most difficult to teach and to understand.
Using a tapping or rhythmic pattern while teaching phonemic awareness can be very effective.  Rhythm is  the heartbeat of language.  It is necessary to correctly enunciate syllables, words and sentences and for fluency in oral reading.  This is why rhyming plays such an important part in the learning process.  Rhyming is a prerequisite for developing more complex skills.  Stories like The Cat in the Hat illustrate how words can sound similar, yet different.  Studies confirm that rhyming is a primary skill that lays the foundation for children's understanding of the internal sound structure in words (Cognitive Concepts, 2005, Earbobics 1).
Research from Put Reading First recommends teaching just one or two types of phoneme manipulations at a time (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, Phonemic Instruction, 2001).  Phonemic awareness includes identification, categorization, isolation, segmentation, blending, substitution, deletion and addition.
Phonics
Although phonics is taught at the same time as phonemic awareness it is not the same thing.  Phonics pertains to written text and the predictable relationship between phonemes and graphemes.  This relationship is called the alphabetic principle.  Students who learn this alphabetic principle can learn to decode most words in the English language.
Even though the English language is not always consistent in its’ articulation, there are some predictable patterns in phonics.  For children with learning disabilities and children who are low achievers, systematic phonics instruction, combined with synthetic phonics instruction produces the greatest gains.  Synthetic phonics instruction consists of teaching students to explicitly convert letters into phonemes and then blend the phonemes to form words.  Systematic phonics instruction is teaching a planned sequence of phonics elements, rather than incidentally teaching phonics, as they happen to appear in a text.  Systematic synthetic phonics instruction is not only significantly more effective in improving the reading skills of children from low-income families; it even improves the spelling ability of good readers (NICHD, 2000).
Again teaching should relate the parts to the whole.  A grapheme is the smallest unit of written text that represents a phoneme.  Graphemes can consist of one letter or several letters.  Instruction should begin with the most commonly used graphemes of single letters and letter combinations such as s, a, th, ee, er and ar.  Another letter combination to teach is the VCe pattern.  When an e is added to a word with a single vowel-consonant cluster it alters the sound of the vowel; for instance the word hop will sound differently and become hope with an added e (Carnine, Silbert, Kame’enui and Tarver, 2004).
Fluency
“Accurate and fluent word recognition depends on phonics knowledge” (Every Child Reading, 2003).  Fluency is reading with 95% word recognition without laboring over word decoding.  Poor readers expend such great effort on decoding text they have little attention and memory left for comprehension.  Reading fluently comes from practice and direct instruction.
Oral reading with direct instruction, guidance and feedback are best practices for reading fluency.  Struggling students will gain fluency as well as comprehension, accuracy, word recognition and speed by orally rereading the text several times.  Orally reading into a tape recorder, or whole-class Choral reading, or peer assisted reading is also beneficial.  While all kinds of reading are encouraged and useful, there is little evidence to support silent reading class activities as beneficial to reading fluency (National Reading Panel, 2000).
Reading practice produces swift and accurate word recognition, or automaticity, but not emphasis.  Some students may readily pronounce words but their oral reading will sound monotone and have inappropriate pauses.  To learn expression in their readings students must again learn directly and model after fluent readers.  Students can replicate the tone and emotions of a passage when they have heard the fluency of another reader (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, Fluency Instruction, 2001).
Vocabulary
Without a sufficient vocabulary fluency is not possible.  Most vocabulary is learned indirectly by listening to the conversations of others, particularly adults.  Children can also learn new words when others read to them.  When the reader pauses to define a new word it gives insight into the meaning of the text and relates the new word to the listeners prior knowledge and experience.  Vocabulary can also be expanded when children read independently and use context clues.  Other ways for students to increase their vocabulary is through self-discovery methods, such as using dictionaries and other reference aids.  Teaching students to look for base words and affixes will also help students with self-discovery of vocabulary words. 
Studies prove that direct instruction is better than incidental vocabulary learning (Baker et al).  The direct instruction of a new word may be necessary in order to understand a reading lesson.  Some homophones will need to be explicitly taught so students will know which circumstance require which word.  Idioms will also need to be explained so students will see the point of the text.  Yet, there is no single best method to teach new vocabulary words.  Frequency, over an extended time, is the only definitive method for vocabulary retention. (Baker et al.).
Comprehension
The goal of learning to read is to comprehend.  Comprehension depends essentially on a large working vocabulary and substantial background knowledge.  “If readers can read the words but do not understand what they are reading, they are not really reading” (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, Vocabulary Instruction, 2001).  Students can improve their reading comprehension by being active and having a purpose for reading the text.
Active readers will have expectations about their text.  This will motivate the reader to use strategies to learn more about the content.  While they read they will seek for information about their questions and predictions.  Proficient readers will make interpretations and conclusions about what they have read and relate it to their prior knowledge and experiences (National Assoc. of School Psychologists).
Students with reading problems will require direct instruction about what the purpose is and what strategies will need to be used in order to comprehend the content.  Teachers improve student comprehension by asking questions and encouraging inquiries and involvement in discussions.  Students with LD can benefit from rereading, however they are not able to distinguish the relevant material from the irrelevant.  They must also learn other techniques and strategies for reading comprehension.  Readers must learn how to summarize, clarify and make predictions of what they have read (Gersten and Baker, 2005).  Proven techniques for text comprehension include obtaining immediate feedback about the text, summarizing key points and understanding story structure by using graphic and semantic organizers (Text Comprehension, 2000).
Augmented Instruction
Certain instructional methods are more effective than others, specifically the direct instruction method.  Yet, to teach reading well, teachers must use a combination of strategies.  Most individuals with learning disabilities have difficulty organizing and recalling verbal information and will benefit greatly from the application of a variety of methods.  Multi-sensory programs are primarily designed for students with dyslexia and other students who have difficulty learning to read.  This method assumes that some children learn best when content is presented in several modalities.  Multi-sensory approaches that employ tracing, hearing, writing, and seeing are often referred to as VAKT (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile) methods (Mercer & Mercer, 2005).  The multi-sensory approach can supplement the direct instruction method.
The balanced reading approach uses concepts of both whole-language and code-emphasis methods.  Whole-language approaches omit direct, systematic teaching of phonemic awareness, PA and phonics (Moats, 2000).  It is more of a self-discovery of learning how to read with no particular structure or sequence.  The balanced approach is now being embraced because the evidence shows that the best instruction is direct instruction.  Yet, even the NRP warns us that the process of decoding can be boring.  So the idea of a whole-language approach, i.e. reading for meaning and purpose, is still being intergraded in the school systems.
Teacher’s Role
         The role of the teacher is not to be underestimated in how well students learn to read.  Teachers need to know what works for their students.  They must be acquainted with the most current and evidence supported teaching strategies (National Reading Panel, 2000).  One reason the antiquated idea of whole-language is still being taught, according to Moats, is because universities and local school systems are not rigorous about using the latest research based teaching techniques of PA (2000).  Teachers need to be required to take frequent professional development courses which keep them abreast of the latest, scientific based, best practices for teaching reading and other subjects.  Prepared teachers are the best teachers and their students are more productive.
Motivation
         The normal progression is to move from learning to read to reading to learn.  However, as poor readers advance in age they eventually learn that they are inept at reading and are academically lagging behind their peers.  In order to read fluently practice is necessary.  Poor readers fail to practice, which in turn, further inhibits their progress.  This is known as “The Matthew Effect.”  If not intervened the student’s motivation to learn to read will diminish and they will continue to fall behind.  One tactic to motivate a student to read is to introduce books in which they have an interest in and connects to their real world experiences.  Books to motivate students should have high interest with low vocabulary (Rog, & Kropp, 2001).  Students should avoid books with complicated plots and those requiring high memory retention, such as mysteries.  Books with interest can include books about sports, cars or even comic books.
Summary
         Learning to read is a progressive process that requires systematic and explicit instruction.  Research shows that instruction in reading should begin at an early age.  The integrated and explicit teaching of phonemic awareness, phonological awareness, the alphabetic principle, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension is necessary to become a proficient reader.  Teachers need to know the latest and most scientifically proven teaching techniques in order to aid students who struggle with reading.  Motivating students to read is key to keeping students interested in reading and striving for success.  Students who fail to read well will also fail in other aspects of their lives.



References
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Armbruster, B., Lehr, F., Osborn, J. Building Blocks for Teaching Children to Read. Put Reading First. The Partnership for Reading. University of Illinois. Retrieved September 25, 2005 from http://www.schwablearning.org/articles.asp?r=37&f=relatedlink

Baker, S.K., Simmons, D.C., & Kameenui, E.J. Vocabulary Acquisition: Synthesis of the Research. U.S. Office of Special Education Programs. University of Oregon.  Retrieved September 23, 2005 from http://idea.uoregon.edu/%7Encite/documents/techrep/tech13.html

Behrmann, M. M. Beginning Reading And Phonological Awareness For Students With Learning Disabilities. Retrieved September 22, 2005 from http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/disability.phonological.html

Carnine, D.W., Silbert, J., Kameenui, E.J., & Tarver, S.G. (2004). Direct Instruction Reading. Merrill Publishing Company. Columbus, OH. 15, 156-159.

Developing Reading Comprehension Through Instruction. National Association of School Psychologists. Retrieved September 24, 2005 from http://www.nasponline.org/publications/spr263_mprw.html

Every Child Reading: A Professional Development Guide. (2003). Learning First Alliance. Washington, D.C. Retrieved September 22, 2005 from http://learningfirst.org/publications/reading/guide/content.html

Gersten, R. & Baker, S. (2005). Reading Comprehension Instruction for Students With Learning Disabilities: A Research Synthesis. National Center for Learning Disabilities. Retrieved September 25, 2005 from http://www.ld.org/Research/ncld_reading_comp.cfm#TO%20TOP

How phonological awareness research is applied in Earobics: Cognitive Concepts. Retrieved September 22, 2005 from http://www.cogcon.com/research/basis/phon_applied.stm

Imaging Study Reveals Brain Function of Poor Readers Can Improve. (April 21, 2004). National Institute of Health-Learning Disabilities Branch. Education News.Org. July 29, 2005. Retrieved September 23, 2005 from http://www.educationnews.org/imaging-study-reveals-brain-functing.htm

Mercer, C.D., & Mercer, A.R.  (2005). Teaching Students With Learning Problems. 8, 306-307. Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Moats, L.C. (2000). Whole Language Lives On: The Illusion of “Balanced” Reading Instruction. Retrieved September 25, 2005 from http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/reading/whole_language_lives_on.html


National Reading Panel Reports Combination of Teaching Phonics, Word Sounds, Giving Feedback on Oral Reading Most Effective Way to Teach Reading. (April 13, 2000). National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. http://www.nichd.nih.gov/new/releases/nrp.cfm 

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Rog., L., & Kropp., P. (2001). Hooking Struggling Readers: Using Books They Can and Want to Read. Retrieved September 25, 2005 from http://www.readingrockets.org/articles/374


Text Comprehension. (2000). Learning First Alliance.  Retrieved September 24, 2005 from http://www.readingrockets.org/articles/323