Technology in Our Schools

Technology in Our Schools
Anne M. Hodgskiss
Northern Arizona University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for ETC 547
Dr. Lane-Kelso
June 24, 2007

Abstract

         Many learning theories are being integrated into education and are being taken into consideration with the development of technology to be used in education. Technology has developed considerably in the last 100 years, moving from the opaque projector to the overhead projector, to the integration of television, the internet, and educational software in the classroom. Technology is still not being used as efficiently as it should be in classrooms. With adequate training and support, more teachers will be open to the idea of integrating technology in their classrooms. 



         Many educational theories exist, some of them building upon others. In this paper I will briefly explain behaviorism, constructivism, constructionism, social learning theory, and cognitive learning theory. I will also focus on how technology has impacted the K-16 classroom and how it might affect it in the future.

Theories

         J.B. Watson started the behaviorist movement. Watson was influenced greatly by Ivan Pavlov’s dogs and the classical conditioning theory where Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate when they heard the sound of a bell because it was often followed with food. Classical conditioning involves the presence of a stimulus and then a response to it. In Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, the subject is rewarded for a correct response. The correct response is found through trial-and-error. In one of Skinner’s pigeon experiments, the pigeon was rewarded every time it turned to the left. The result was that the pigeon eventually turned all the way around (Francisco, 2006). This theory led to “teaching machines” where the students have multiple choices, but only one of them allows the pencil to go through. This allows students to learn at their own pace. More recently this has led to behaviorism software on computers where students are rewarded for entering the correct response. In the 1980s a study was conducted in Roanoke, VA. Computers were used to teach an 8th grade class 9th grade algebra curriculum. The class finished the year’s curriculum in half a year.  They achieved as well as the 9th graders, and retained their knowledge better over the course of the next year (Skinner, 1984, p. 948).
         According to the Constructivist theory, students construct their own meaning though their experiences. This requires active engagement and constructing representations of what they already know. Collaboration is an important aspect in the constructivism learning process. Projects are often used to encourage problem-solving among groups of learners. The activities should encourage inquiry in order to engage the students in meaningful learning. More recently students have been able to use software such as Mindtools, Excel, Inspiration, and PowerPoint on computers in order to help them construct and to organize their constructive thinking.  (Juniu, 2006, p68-70)
         The Constructionist theory stems from the Constructivist movement. It is a more independent way of working than constructivism in which students are encouraged to construct their learning visually in order to share it. With this theory, children work at their own pace and in their own way. Subjects are more integrated with each other. (McDonald & Ingvarson, 1997, pp.514-517) There is also a Social Constructionist theory in which people are encouraged to redescribe themselves. We are, of course, motivated to have our constructed version of reality prevail. Not everything can be reconstructed, of course. Facts do not change because of the way that we speak about them, but we can change the way that people perceive the facts (Brinkmann, 2006, pp. 98-99). Social constructions have been going on for years as we change the way that we look at certain groups of people.
         The Social Learning Theory was started by Lev Vygotsy in the 1800s and was built upon more recently by A. Bandura. The Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors of others. Vygotsky stressed the importance of working with others in order to acquire knowledge and to gain skills. He stated that students should remain in their “zone of proximal development” in order to get the most out of their interactions. (César & Santos, 2006, pp. 335-336) Bandura built upon this theory of Vygotsky’s and has created the Social Cognitive Theory. This theory adds that behavior in a situation can be affected by both environmental and personal factors (Staples & Webster, 2007, p. 61). This means that how a student learns can be affected by any number of personal factors, including self-reflective and self-reactive capabilities. Often the outcome can be affected by the self-efficacy of the individual – the higher the self-efficacy the more likely the outcome is going to be successful (Brandon, Herzog, Irvin, & Gwaltney, 2004, p. 62)

Technology’s History

         Since the mid-1800s technology of some sort has been used in schools. It all started with visual aids and has since developed into the technology-filled schools that we know today.
         In 1906 the Keystone View Company published a teachers’ guide to using slides and stereographs. They called it “Visual Education”. In the 1920s, visual aid departments started appearing in schools to handle these slides and stereographs. In 1927, sound was synchronized to moving pictures. Educators started considering the idea of using motion pictures in the classroom as well as their static visual-aids. This was not truly possible until in 1929 ERPI Classroom Films, Inc, started to produce educational films. They called this “audio-visual education.” By 1935 ERPI offered 40 films. Encyclopedia Brittanica and the University of Chicago purchased ERPI Classroom Films, Inc by 1940 and changed its name to Encyclopedia Brittanica Films, Inc. (McGinnis, 2006, p. 35).
         In the 1930s some schools developed film libraries with audio-visual directors. Audio-visual education was a movement by the mid-1930s. Many educators saw this as a powerful way for students to learn – why talk about history if you can see a dramatization of the events? (McGinnis, 2006, p. 35)
         When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and the United States became involved in World War II, there became a drastic need for men and women to enlist. Training films were used to instruct these people rapidly. Many men and women who took part in army film production became leaders of the audio-visual movement from the 1950s – 1980s (McGinnis, 2006, p. 35). The growing audio-visual movement inspired by the army did not just include films, but also resulted in the development of the overhead projector. Before the overhead projector, opaque projectors were used. These often resulted in the burning of the paper that they were projecting if the paper was left on the lamp for too long. World War II also gave a start to recording voices in the classroom – for the first time students could hear how they sounded. (Wiseman, 2006, p. 15)
         In the 1940s educational radio programs were broadcasted to supplement classroom instruction. In the 1950s some schools began to use television broadcasting, and by the 1970s many libraries began to house the media (McGinnis, 2006, p. 38).
         In 1983 the Apple IIe became one of the most popular personal computers on the market. Apple started the trend of donating computers to schools when they donated one machine to every school in California (McGinnis, 2006, p. 38). Of course, where there is a market there are developers. Software developers started to make learning software for these machines. Today there are many educational software packages available – both for purchase and as freeware. Much of the early software was based on the behaviorist theory and Skinner’s “teaching machines” where the student is rewarded for a correct response. Today this kind of software receives some criticism as “drill and kill” but also receives some praise for being very effective at teaching information that needs to be memorized, such as math facts and grammar rules. There was also constructivist software available in the 1980s. I personally remember a piece of software called Logo where one would give commands to a turtle on the screen, telling it how far to walk and what angle to turn. This software allowed us to explore geometric theories and create at our own pace.

Technology Today

         Today we see many classrooms with interactive white boards, computers with internet access, CD players, and overhead projectors. Many language classrooms have “language centers” where students can record their own voice, or speak to a peer through a microphone and headset system. Gone are the days where you struggle to hear yourself pronounce a foreign word in a crowded classroom! Long-distance learning can be done on the internet – many universities now use the WebCT Blackboard system. Teachers attempt to integrate all the available technology available in classrooms, but there is still some room left for growth.
         Personal response systems are used in some classrooms these days for immediate feedback. Often pop quizzes are administered mid-lecture – this allows teachers to see who is paying attention and what might need to be revisited. This can also allow for other activities where students can vote on a topic somewhat anonymously, without the fear of what their peers will think. (O’Hanlon, 2007, p. 1)
Studies have shown that the use of online bulletin board systems help to foster a sense of community and collaboration among students. In addition, students have reported that they are forced to think more in-depth about the material when discussing it with others online. The negative side of this goes back to accessibility due to crowded computer labs, and the fact that teaching students how to use the system takes time out of class (DenBeste, 2003, pp. 492-500). However, the teacher must weigh the positives with the negatives when considering incorporating something like this into their instruction.
         Technology has greatly helped students with disabilities too. I have a friend whose son is visually impaired. All of his textbooks are large print, and even so he has problems reading them. He has some wonderful software that will scan in his texts and read it to him as he follows along on the computer. Through the use of the computer he has learned to touch-type so that he can turn in his assignments at school. At school he has a machine that uses a camera to view what he aims it at and enlarges it on a screen. He often uses this to enlarge what he is writing so that he does not have to write incredibly large and with a thick black marker. All of this technology has helped him to fit into a regular education classroom with minimal adjustments by the teacher to compensate.

The Future of Technology

         In order for technology to be most effective in classrooms, teachers need adequate training. As it stands today, most teachers are given technology with little or no training. Instructional technology is not used to its full capabilities in school because there is limited opportunities for staff development during working hours, there is a lack of technical support, and many teachers are resistant due to their teaching styles paired with a negative attitude towards instructional technology (Venezky, 2004, p. 13). All teachers in Georgia must pass a basic technology proficiency exam. Unfortunately this does not include much more than showing that you are able to use some basic Microsoft Office tools and can identify parts of your computer, such as the monitor and mouse. In order for technology to be more efficient, this training needs to be more rigorous and include intensive training on all equipment in the classroom as well as many lesson ideas for utilizing it effectively. Behaviorism-based software has its place, but it is not all that computers have to offer. There is much that we can use computers for to construct knowledge, and that can go beyond researching a topic. I know very few teachers who would start to think of using concept-mapping software with their students as a valuable activity. In order to change the minds of those resistant teachers, we should be reconstructing the view of technology in education by constantly redefining its uses in positive fashions.
         Sony has released an electronic book reader. It appears much like a Palm Pilot, except it uses a new “liquid ink” technology where it does not drain power to show a page, simply to refresh a page. With this liquid ink technology I see the future of textbooks being electronic. Today, students with visual disabilities need large-print textbooks which need to be special ordered. With an electronic reader, the student could simply change the settings to large print and the problem would be solved.
         Some teachers foresee every student having a laptop with wireless internet connection. Others see most of the learning moving to the online format with reduced face-to-face sessions (Mason & Dralle, 1999, p. 2). While I do not see many high school students having the self-motivation and discipline to complete their classes online, I do see it as a viable option for college students. Some schools have already equipped all of their students with laptops and require many assignments to be submitted electronically, although that does not seem to be catching on as rapidly as we might have expected, probably due to the cost.
Accessibility is another important issue. According to the Social Cognitive Theory, the environment can greatly affect the outcome of a student’s learning. Technology must be available in an environment that is nurturing and low in stress. Communal computer labs do not offer this as they are booked for certain periods of time (usually 45 minutes) and the students have to walk across the school to access them(DenBeste, 2003, p.2). If the technology is available in the classroom, students would most likely feel more comfortable using them, and as such their learning outcomes would be greater.

Summary

         B.F. Skinner has had a great impact on software programs with his operant conditioning theory. Constructivism has had an effect on technology – it has not been felt as greatly, but it is happening and the way of much of the future of technology. Social cognitive theory has affected the way that students work with technology, and will continue to have an effect in the way that we offer technological opportunities to our students. In order for these theories to work the most effectively with technology in schools, teachers need adequate training and ideas. Change is slow, but training will certainly help to speed it up.

References

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