Technology's Impact on Education

Abstract

         “How has technology and its use impacted teaching and learning in the PK-16 classroom? Upon examination of the various learning theories, this review will investigate the history of and impact each theory has had on education, teaching strategies and learning strategies. In relation to the learning theories I will also summarize the contributions that technology has made to both teaching and learning. I will investigate the history of educational technology and speculate a possible course for the future.

Learning Theories: A Brief Overview

Behaviorism:

         Two widely renowned behaviorists were John Watson and B.F. Skinner. John B. Watson founded the concept of behaviorism in 1913.  He claimed psychology was only concerned with behaviors, not with human consciousness or the mind. Watson’s work was influenced by Pavlov’s conditioned responses to stimuli experiments with animals (The most well known being dogs associating the sound of the bell and arrival of food, prompting salivation. When the food was removed and only the bell sounded, the dogs still salivated). Watson would relate this to humans reacting the same way to stimuli; therefore emphasizing the theory that our behavior is simply a response to what is around us, not connected to thoughts, feelings, intentions or mental processes.
         B.F. Skinner arrived on the behaviorism scene many years later (1931) to laboratory test the theories of Watson. He rejected Watson’s emphasis on reflexes and conditioning and developed a theory known as operant conditioning. Skinner emphasized that mind and feelings do play a part in determining behaviors, that the experience of reinforcements received is the determinant of our behavior. Skinner was of the belief that behaviors can be manipulated by controlling rewards and punishments; a combination of external influences and past learning history was what shaped the personality of an individual. Skinner developed teaching machines whereby students could learn small chunks of information at a time, uncovering answers for immediate feedback or reinforcement. Computer based, self instruction programs follow the principles of Skinner.
         Although much of what early studies revealed of behaviorism in the forms of praise and punishment, direct instruction, task analysis, precision teaching, and behavior checklists, we may still see in practice today, the research had become less popular but the late 1980’s.  Some technology applications based on behaviorism theory: software programs of a tutorial drill and practice type, programs that reward behavior by giving verbal and visual praise, learner is run through content levels until mastery is reached.

Social Learning Theories:

         Social learning has been considered a transition between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories. Albert Bandura founded the social learning theory while studying at the University of Iowa in 1952. Bandura was interested in studying human aggression through behavior modeling. This theory has a strong link to criminology, or the motivation behind the behavior.  Bandura believes that children learn to respond aggressively by observing, imitating, and modeling those around them; family members, media, and the environment. Reinforcement from the observed aggressions is seen as tension reduction, financial rewards, praise of others, or building self esteem. Bandura is widely known for his Bobo doll experiment that examined the development of aggressive behavior patterns, what provokes aggressive behavior, and the determinants of a repeat occurrence of aggressive behavior in the future. He emphasized that imitative behavior or learning by modeling could be narrowed down to into four processes; attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation.
         The social learning theory emphasized to educators that the modeling of desired behaviors and skills brought another approach to the educational setting. Students could learn through observation. Teachers could model appropriate behaviors and validate self-esteem when students were successful and capable of accomplishing required tasks, after observing and attempting on their own.
         This theory would later be labeled as the social cognitive theory when thinking became a large component of continuing research.

Cognitive Learning Theories:

         Cognitive learning theories investigate how the brain processes and stores new concepts and information. Cognitive theories can be broken down into three sub-categories; cognitive dissonance theory, cognitive flexibility theory, and cognitive load theory.
         Leon Fetinger became famous in 1957 for the development of his Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. This theory states that a person may feel discomfort or dissonance if their beliefs or behaviors are not consistent with those around them. This discomfort may cause them to change their behaviors or beliefs, and applies to situations related to decision making and problem solving that could be associated to what we call peer pressure today. Dissonance relief can be accomplished by removing the conflict, reducing the importance of the belief, or changing the belief to change the balance of the dissonance.
         The Cognitive Flexibility Theory, developed by Rand Spiro, P. Feltovich, and R. Coulson emphasizes the transfer of knowledge to situations that are different from the context they were learned in. It emphasizes the complexity of learning and follows these main principles (Kearsley, 2007):
•          Learning activities must present content in multiple ways.
•          Avoid oversimplifying the content domain and support context-dependent knowledge when selecting instructional materials.
•          Instruction should be case based and emphasize knowledge construction, not transmission of information.
•          Knowledge sources should be delivered across content rather than in isolation.
         John Sweller is responsible for the development of the Cognitive Load Theory. This theory explains that an individual’s knowledge base has specific structures or schema. These schemas allow us to think, perceive and solve problems. As a learner moves from beginning skills to more advanced, their schema becomes more developed and skills become part of long term memory. For new learning to occur techniques for reducing working memory load are needed to make changes in the long term memory associated with changing schema structure.
Instructional design recommendations would include (Kearsley, 2007):
•          Use worked examples for problem solving methods to lower the working memory load.
•          Physically integrate information sources rather than mentally to eliminate the working memory load.
•          Reduce unnecessary repetition to eliminate the working memory load.
•          Use auditory and visual cues when essential for understanding to increase working memory capacity.
         Technology use that compliments this theory includes concept mapping, and hypertext, multimedia presentations.

Constructivism:

         Lev Vygotsky’s (a social constructionist) social development theory complimented the work of Bandura (social learning theory). Vygotsky’s belief is that social interaction is necessary for cognitive development to occur. This cognitive development is dependent on what he called the zone of proximal development (ZPD). For full cognitive development to occur, student interaction or engagement with one another is necessary. 
         After studying the works of Piaget, and Vygotsky, the constructivist theory developed by Jerome Bruner (1966) is based on the idea that learning is an active process where learners build their own knowledge through discovery and testing based on their previous cognitive mental structure to develop a deeper understanding of concepts. Through this process the knowledge obtained through the deeper understanding allows the learner to easily transfer that knowledge to other situations. Bruner and his team identify three systems a learner uses to master knowledge: enactive (manipulating objects using actions), iconic (production of mental images), and symbolic (using language to apply meaning to the situation).
         Constructivism is responsible for the direction that education practices are taking today with interactive learning, the use of computers and the World Wide Web.

Constructionism:

         Seymour Papert, a mathematician, and pioneer of artificial intelligences, is responsible for coining the term constructionism. Papert combined the beliefs of artificial intelligences, or the use of computers to do the thinking; and constructivism, an educational philosophy that has the underlying theory that children learn by doing and making. Constructionism suggests that discovery and exploration are better than the traditional instruction theories of early philosophers. Papert worked with and was influenced by the works of Jean Piaget and his theories of learning. In the early 1960s Papert’s work at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory he founded, Papert (along with Wally Feurzeig) is known for inventing Logo, a computer programming language based on LISP (language of artificial intelligences). Through Logo students become their own teacher; they experiment to learn the various commands and components of Logo to write a program for the computer using turtles, or images that form repeated patterns. Its basis began with mathematics in mind but is now also used in other disciplines.
         Papert was/is a visionary for educational reform. He is one of the most influential
contributors to technology use in education today. He believes our education system is incompatible with our rapidly changing society, and significant changes are in order. Papert believes technology can be used more efficiently in schools than it currently is. He emphasizes, “Our question is whether we’ll wait until we’re driven to the wall and the system is collapsed from with in from its own internal contradictions before we decide that we’re going to create conditions that will allow a new system where there’ll be diversity of learning paths, diversity of teaching methods, and diversity of subjects to be learned”(Papert, 1998).
         Papert, along with colleagues Negroponte and Kay are responsible for launching the One Laptop Per Child initiative in 2005 that proposes to provide $100 laptops to every child in developing countries. Implementation is expected in 2007-2008.

Matrix of Models of Instruction and Technology Support (Conway, 1997)
Psychologist           Contribution                      Software Example
B.F. Skinner          Stimulus/Response Theory          Outnumbered!
Lev Vygotsky          Zone of Proximal Development          StudyWorks
Jerome Bruner          Discovery Learning                          Operation Frog
Seymour Papert          Microworlds                    Logo programming lang.
Jean Piaget          Constructivist Theory           Science Toolkit: Earthquake Module

         The foundations of each of these learning theories have impacted teaching and learning over the course of time. Next, I will look at the introduction and evolution of technologies and create a timeline of how technologies have been implemented in the K-16 classrooms over the last 25 years.

History of Technology Use in Education

         Prior to the introduction of computer technologies, the traditional classroom evolved from the use of chalk and chalkboards, pencil and paper, to teacher devices for presentation such as overhead projectors, film strip and movie projectors, Scantron machines, ditto making machines, and Xerox machines. All of these devices were thought to save time and help in streamlining the delivery of information in one way or another. Following is a timeline (not all inclusive) of early inventions, inventors, people and programs that have impacted the use of technology in educational settings (McLester, 2005; Wikipedia, 2007):

1920s:
         
Sidney Pressey:          “Testing machine” produced multiple choice questions, drill and practice exercises.
LaZerte:             “Problem cylinder” presented a problem and checked the steps the student used to solve the problem.

1950s:
         
University of Houston:          offers first televised college classes
B.F. Skinner:          “Teaching machine” provided programmed instruction (followed the theories of behaviorism).
Rath, Anderson, Brainerd: Conducted a study that taught students binary arithmetic using an IBM650.

1960s:
         
University of Illinois:          Developed PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations)
Douglas Engelbart:          *(with colleagues) develops a computer system to strengthen and increase human abilities, i.e. learning.
                                *invents computer mouse
Ivan Sutherland:          Developed Sketchpad
U.S. Dept. of Defense          Commissions ARPANET: (the internet as we know it)

1970s:
         
Apple Computers:          First mass distribution of computers in schools (California)
Microsoft (Gates):          BASIC programming language
Oregon Trail:          Created by 3 students at Carleton College for their senior project

1980s:
         
Seymour Papert:          *Publishes “Mindstorm: Children, computers, and powerful ideas”
                                *Creates Logo programming language
Computer use:          Becomes widespread in schools throughout the world
Osbourne 1:          First laptop computer-weighed 24.5 lbs.
IBM personal computer:  Built computer that allowed third party add ons—created the opportunity for clones to be built, lowering prices and made computers more affordable
Bank Street Writer:          One of the first word processing programs allowing spelling and grammar checks
Free Educational Mail Network:          Developed by two teachers, allowed online two-way communication (2-3 days for message turnaround)
LISTSERV-Eric Thomas:          Used BINET network for e-mails lists between universities
Macintosh computer:          Introduced by Apple.
HyperCard & HyperStudio:          Allowed for projects with backgrounds, animation, graphics, sounds, in addition to text

1990s:
         
World Wide Web was named:          Formerly known in the Swiss research lab CERN as a project
Virtual degrees:          Online campuses begin emerging; universities offering complete degrees via the Web using asynchronous online technologies
Snowe-Rockefeller Amendment to the Telecommunications Act of 1996:          Created discounts (20-90% off the cost) for internet access to schools and libraries nationwide, allowing remote areas access to the online world for the first time.
(E-Rate)
Encyclopedia Britannica Online:          Marked the beginning of the shift from content provided by CD-ROM to online (Web) format.
WebQuests:          (Bernie Dodge & Tom March) on-line projects comprised of inquiry based activities that focus on using, analyzing, and synthesizing information.
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant):          Handheld device with calendar, address book, and capabilities for use of e-mail, internet access, and instant messaging.
Wireless networking:          Wires no longer necessary for internet connection
TICG (Technology Innovation Challenge Grant)
PT3 (Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers for Technology):          Clinton administration: along with American’s School Act provided $2 billion over 5 years to help states integrate technology into schools.
Part of TICG, PT3 provided the professional development to teachers to use the technology.

2000s:
         
Intel Teach to the Future:          Worldwide effort at professional development for harnessing technology
Virtual Schools Initiative:          (Florida) established in state law as an accredited independent educational entity.
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         The evolution of technologies has been a rapid one. The shift of its uses has also changed from streamlining of delivery to creating a whole new approach to structuring the learning environment.
         Universities have made the most progress in using technologies to the fullest. Virtual online learning has progressed significantly in the last five years. Online learning is a true constructivist approach to learning. Setting up virtual learning classrooms or communities where students structure their own learning, not only what but how they learn.
         In my research, I have found many universities and school districts offer webinars and blogs for their teachers, parents, and students for informational as well as training purposes. Teachers in Shrewsbury Public Schools in Massachusetts use podcasts with students as young as the third grade. They have found that redesigning units (geography, poetry, history) to effectively use technology has been well worth the effort. “The excitement of creating a polished product for the Web and the possibility of reaching a diverse and real audience were tremendous motivators” (Dlott, 2007). These teachers also found that students writing and listening skills improved as they worked to produce their best work when they knew they were writing for a global audience.
The students were truly inspired by their learning experiences. We need to inspire more students! I can only see this increasing as states and communities grasp the full potential of the technologies available.
Conclusion
         Much of what we have available through the internet and digital world has greatly influenced what we learn and how we learn it. This wealth of knowledge is not used uniformly throughout the education world. Some states are way ahead of others in the use of technologies in the public school setting, due largely in many cases, to funding issues for purchasing materials and providing training. Funding issues at the federal level need to be addressed to level the playing field for all districts and all children.
         First and foremost what I believe needs to happen is professional development for teachers to make a paradigm shift to new styles of teaching and learning. Universities need to revise the training of pre-service teachers so they bring this knowledge with them upon entering the profession.  The training for all teachers needs to be ongoing to keep up with the ever changing technologies.
         Gone are the days of the teacher as the disseminator of information, students taking notes and memorizing material. Gone are the formal assessments in the form of multiple choice and essay test performance. Gone are the textbook only, bell guided school days. Today and the future hold the opportunity for student collaboration, with the teacher facilitating concepts by guiding and exploring topics with the students. Students are assessed by showing what they know by applying their knowledge and solving problems related to a variety of situations. Technology is what students use to gather and organize information; either physically in school or in the virtual classroom.
         Preparation for the future in the world of education continues to evolve with the ever changing opportunities that technology provides.


References
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Papert, S. (1998, June 2). [Recorded lecture]. Series of lectures presented at The 11th Colin Cherry Memorial Lecture on Communication. Imperial College, London. [Transcript]. Retrieved June 21, 2007, from http://www.connectedfamily.com/frame4/cf0413seymour/recent_essays/cf4013_cherry_...

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