Senior Recital Program Notes

‘Allegro’ from Three Duets for Horn

Otto Nicolai (1810-1849)





Unit One: Composer Profile          

Arnold (1983) declared that Otto Nicolai (1810-1849), born in Konigsberg, Germany, endured a miserable childhood of intense musical training and ran away from home at age 16.  Scholars (Kuhn, 2001; McIntire, 2001; Slonimsky, 2001) asserted that after leaving home, Nicolai settled in Berlin and studied piano and composition at the Royal Institution for Church Music.  Arnold (1983) noted that Nicolai travelled to Rome in 1831 and became the organist to the Prussian Ambassador.  Konrad (2012) contended that during his tenure in Roma, Nicolai composed his own music and cultivated an interest in opera.  Arnold (1983) noted that Nicolai accepted the position of assistant Kapellmeister in Vienna in 1837.

Konrad (2012) asserted that while in Vienna, Nicolai gained experience conducting operatic and orchestral works.  Scholars (Kuhn, 2001; McIntire, 2001; Slonimsky, 2001) declared that in 1841, he became the assistant conductor of the Hofoper at the Karntnertor.  According to Arnold (1983), he composed his first German opera, The Merry Wives of Windsor, in 1846.  Konrad (2012) defended that after an argument with the head of the Vienna opera house, Nicolai returned to Germany in 1847 and served as the Kapellmeister at the Berlin Opera House.  Scholars (Kuhn, 2001; McIntire, 2001; Slonimsky, 2001) noted that Nicolai died in May of 1849.



Unit Two: Historical Perspectives

Arnold (1983) asserted that the term “sonata” most often describes a composer’s most serious essays in solo instrumental repertoire.  Emerging in the early seventeenth century, the term sonata means “played” in Italian (1).  Sadie (2001) noted that in the early 1600s, the development of the basso continuo fostered an increased emphasis upon an accompanied melody rather than the polyphony of earlier years.  Originally intended for vocal music, this new style of music soon applied to instrumental compositions as well.  According to Arnold (1983), composers of the early seventeenth century produced compositions deemed sonatas; these compositions featured one or two solo instrumental lines with basso continuo accompaniment.

         Arnold (1983) contended that composer Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) popularized the sonata throughout Europe.  A prolific composer, Corelli organized his sonatas in alternating slow and fast movements and wrote sonatas da chiesa, church sonatas, as well as sonatas da camera, chamber sonatas.  Sadie (2001) noted that early Baroque composers such as Georg Phillip (Spelling) Telemann (1681-1767) and Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) blended elements of church and chamber sonatas in their compositions.  Sadie (1988) asserted that the baroque sonata predominantly featured the trio type and continued to alternate between fast and slow movements.  After 1700, the solo sonata, sonatas for a melody instrument with a bass accompaniment, rose in popularity.

During the Classical Era, there occurred alterations in the established sonata.  Sadie (2001) asserted that composers Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757), Domenico Alberti (1710-1740), and Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (1714-1788) produced sonatas for the solo keyboard; subsequently, the keyboard overtook the harpsichord and clavichord in popularity.  Griffiths (2011) contended that Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791), Joseph Haydn (1732-1809), and Muzio Clementi (1752-1832) continued to produce keyboard sonatas.  In instrumental sonatas, the keyboard remained as the accompaniment until the late classical era when Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) began to treat the piano and string instruments as equals.

Sadie (2001) noted that the classical era sonata remained a multi-movement work with either three or four movements that alternated between fast and slow.  The first movement, written in sonata form, included an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation.  Sadie (1988) noted that Romantic composers such as Franz Schubert (1797-1828), Robert Schumann (1810-1856), and expanded upon the traditions of the classical sonata; however, they did not break its essential structure.



Unit Three: Circumstances of Composition

           Scholars (Arnold, 1983; Konrad, 2012; Kuhn, 2001; McIntire, 2001; Slonimsky, 2001;) agreed that the publication date of Nicolai’s Three Duets for Horn remain unknown and that Nicolai’s chamber duets rose in prevalence posthumously.



Unit Four: Musical Elements



         Written in common time, Nicolai's third duet features an Allegro tempo marking.  The first and second horn parts alternate the melodic material.  One horn part features an eighth note basso continuo while the other part contains the melody.  When the horns play in rhythmic unison, Nicolai emphasizes a major third interval between the parts.  The melody contains passages distinguished by eighth-note, triplet, and sixteenth-note motifs.  The piece begins with an e minor tonality, modulates to G major, and concludes in e minor.



Unit Five: Technical Considerations

         Because the piece does not include piano or orchestral accompaniment, the two horn players must pay particular heed to intonation.  The movement spans nearly ten minutes with no considerable break; the performers need endurance and the ability to produce a wide dynamic range without embouchure rest.  The two players must communicate effectively and distinguish between accompaniment lines and melodic material.



Unit Six: Form and Structure

         The Allegro movement of Nicolai’s horn duets comprises sonata form.  The exposition modulates between e minor and G major and spans measures one through 54.  The first theme group occurs between measures one and 24; the first horn part contains the melody while the second part features a basso continuo line of eighth notes.  The second theme group spans measures 25 through 54 and contains triplet motifs in G major in both parts.  The development occurs between measures 55 and 98.  Modulatory in nature, the development section begins with alternating solos between the first and second horn parts.  The development concludes with the horns in rhythmic unison separated by a major third.  The recapitulation spans measures 98 through 145.  The first theme group occurs between measures 98 and 116; the second theme group spans measures 116 through 145.



Diagram of the Allegro Movement from Nicolai’s Three Duets for Horn

Exposition                                        Development                    Recapitulation

Theme Group 1 Theme Group 2                                        Theme Group 1          Theme Group 2

(mm #1-24)            (mm #24-54)                    (mm #55-98)                    (mm #98-116)                    (mm #116-145)

e m- G M           G major                    modulatory                    e m- G M                    e minor















































Unit Seven: Discography



Please note that no recordings are available.



























































































Unit Eight: Bibliography



Arnold, D. (1983). Nicolai, Otto. In The new Oxford companion to music (Vol. 2, p. 1243). New York:          Oxford University Press. 



Arnold, D. (1983). Sonata. In The new Oxford companion to music (Vol. 2). New York: Oxford          University Press. 



Griffiths, P. (2011). Sonata. In Grove music online. Retrieved from          http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com



Konrad, J. (2012). In Grove music online. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com



Kuhn, L, McIntire, D. & Slonimsky, N. (2001). Nicolai, Otto.  In Baker’s biographical dictionary of          musicians (Vol. 6, p. 2601). New York: Schirmer Books. 



Sadie, S. (2001). Sonata.  In The new grove dictionary of music and musicians (2nd ed.)          

(Vol. 23, pp. 671-685). New York: Macmillan Publishers Limited.



Sadie, S. (1988). Sonata. In The Norton grove concise encyclopedia of music (pp. 708-709). New          York: Macmillan Publishers Limited. 



Stein, L.  (1979). Structure and style: The study and analysis of musical forms. New York: Summy          Birchard Incorporated. 

















































‘Movement I’ from Sonata for Horn in F

Paul Hindemith (1895-1963)





Unit One: Biographical Sketch of Composer



Born in Frankfurt, Germany, Paul Hindemith (1895-1963) gained notoriety as a composer, performer, teacher, and conductor during the early twentieth century.  His theoretical publications and compositional style revolutionized music and remains an integral portion of professional musical repertoire.  Schubert (2011) contended that Hindemith began his musical studies at an early age and his father, Robert Rudolf Hindemith (1870-1915) cherished the dream for his three children to become classical musicians and implemented intense musical training throughout Hindemith’s childhood.  The young Hindemith showed promise on the violin; his teacher recognized Hindemith’s potential and arranged for a free position at the Conservatory with an emphasis in violin.  Schubert (2001) observed that although Hindemith enjoyed great success playing violin in a trio with his father and siblings, he grew increasingly interested in musical composition.

         Schubert (2011) noted that Hindemith’s compositional career began in earnest when he studied at the Hoch Conservatory under Arnold Mendelssohn (1855-1933).  Hindemith valued his initial studies and dedicated the 1927 work Kammermusik to Mendelssohn.  Thompson (1973) noted that his next composition instructor, Bernhard Sekles (1874-1932), embraced modernist principles, and recognized Hindemith’s considerable technical prowess.  During this time, Hindemith’s style garnered influence from both Sekles’s modernism as well as the late-Romantic styles of Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) and Gustav Mahler (1860-1911).

         Kuhn (2001) asserted that during World War I, Hindemith served as the bass drum player of the regimental band of the German army.  Schubert (2011) asserted that he did not witness battle until the last months of the war, when he narrowly escaped a grenade attack.  In the midst of war, Hindemith formed a string quartet and continued to compose.  Upon his return to Germany following the war, Hindemith chose to renounce his first violin position in favor of the viola.  Schubert (2011) noted that during this time, Hindemith began to consider himself primarily as a composer.  The 1920s marked a prolific period in Hindemith’s compositional career; during this decade he produced several one-act operas as well as string quartets and song cycles set to poetry.  Schubert (2001) noted that during the 1920s, there emerged a cultural interest in the principles of democratization; Hindemith’s arbitrary instrumentations reflect this trend.

         In addition to societal movements, Hindemith gleaned influence from art and literature.  Schubert (2011) observed that his one-act operas reflect principles of expressionism; Hindemith set compositional works to texts by expressionist authors Oskar Kokoschka (1886-1980) and August Stramm (1874-1915).  During the early twentieth century, Hindemith implemented new techniques in musical composition.  Kuhn (2001) contended that the majority of Hindemith’s music remains tonal, yet not diatonic.  Hindemith attributed equal importance to each of the 12 tones and classified chords within six categories.  Kennedy (1980) asserted that in the late 1930s, Hindemith explained his revolutionary compositional techniques in a book entitled The Craft of Musical Composition.

         The late 1930s witnessed the rise of socialism and the Nazi regime in Germany.  Arnold (1983) asserted that Hindemith’s music came under scrutiny from the government; Hindemith subsequently moved to Turkey, Switzerland, and eventually settled in America in 1940.  Thompson (1973) noted that while in America, Hindemith focused primarily upon education; he taught at Yale and occasionally lectured at Harvard.  Arnold (1983) contended that during his years in America, Hindemith broadened his range of orchestration and composed solo works for wind instruments such as bassoon, clarinet, and horn.  Schubert (2011) asserted that Hindemith’s teaching career additionally fostered an increase in his pedagogical writings.  Despite his departure from traditional compositional techniques, Hindemith valued the fundamentals of theory.  Schubert (2001) noted that during his years in America, Hindemith published A Concentrated Course in Traditional Harmony (1943) and Elementary Training for Musicians (1946).  Kennedy (1980) observed that although Hindemith became a United States citizen in 1946, he returned to Europe in 1953 to teach at the University of Zurich.

         Kennedy (1980) asserted that toward the end of his life, Hindemith conducted with greater frequency; however, he continued to compose as well.  Kuhn (2001) contended that after a long period of ailing health, Hindemith died of pancreatitis in 1963.  Schubert (2011) noted that despite Hindemith’s prolific writings on the subject of musical compositions, the subsequent generation of composers did not adhere to his theoretical practices.  Hindemith’s lasting legacy exists in his musical compositions; his works for larger ensembles, chamber groups, and solo instruments comprise a considerable portion of the canon for professional musicians.



Unit Two: Historical Perspectives

Arnold (1983) asserted that the term “sonata” most often describes a composer’s most serious essays in solo instrumental repertoire.  Emerging in the early seventeenth century, the term sonata means “played” in Italian (p. 1).  Webster (2001) noted that in the early 1600s, the development of the basso continuo fostered an increased emphasis upon an accompanied melody rather than the polyphony of earlier years.  Originally intended for vocal music, this new style of music soon applied to instrumental compositions as well.  According to Arnold (1983), composers of the early seventeenth century produced compositions deemed sonatas; these compositions featured one or two solo instrumental lines with basso continuo accompaniment.

Arnold (1984) asserted that composer Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) popularized the sonata throughout Europe.  A prolific composer, Corelli organized his sonatas in alternating slow and fast movements and wrote sonatas da chiea, church sonatas, as well as sonatas da camera, chamber sonatas.  Webster (2001) noted that early Baroque composers such as Georg Phillip Telemann (1681-1767) and Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) blended elements of church and chamber sonatas in their compositions.  Sadie (1988) asserted that the baroque sonata predominantly featured the trio type and continued to alternate between fast and slow movements.  After 1700, the solo sonata, sonatas for a melody instrument with a bass accompaniment, rose in popularity.

During the Classical Era, there occurred alterations in the established sonata.  Webster (2001) asserted that composers Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757), Domenico Alberti (1710-1740), and Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (1714-1788) produced sonatas for the solo keyboard; subsequently, the keyboard overtook the harpsichord and clavichord in popularity.  Griffiths (2011) contended that Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791), Joseph Haydn (1732-1809), and Muzio Clementi (1752-1832) continued to produce keyboard sonatas.  In instrumental sonatas, the keyboard remained as the accompaniment until the late classical era when Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) began to treat the piano and string instruments as equals.

Green (1965) noted that the classical era sonata remained a multi-movement work with either three or four movements that alternated between fast and slow.  The first movement, written in sonata form, included an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation.  Stein (1979) asserted that the final two or three movements contain less structural rigidity; the second movement may approximate sonata form while the final movements feature ABA, AB, or rondo form.  Sadie (1988) contended that the sonatas of the Romantic period embody the characteristic nationalism of the era.  Webster (2001) noted that Romantic composers such as Franz Schubert (1797-1828), Robert Schumann (1810-1856), and Brahms expanded upon the traditions of the classical sonata; however, they did not break its essential structure.

While the sonata remained a popular compositional genre during the twentieth century, the implied conventions associated with it faded.  According to Sadie (1988), the break in sonata tradition appears in the works of composers such as Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Hindemith.  Griffiths (2011) noted that a sonata no longer dictates a work include multiple movements with the first in sonata form; instead, the sonata provides a formal basis upon which contemporary composers may elaborate. 





Unit Three: Circumstances of Composition



Kuhn (2001) contended that in 1939, during the turmoil of World War II, Hindemith published the Sonata for Horn in F. Despite the growing worldwide tension and government upheaval, Hindemith continued his compositional career.  Schubert (2001) noted that after he achieved success in his youth as a composer and performer in Germany, Hindemith endured scrutiny from the Nazi government during the 1930s.  The government deemed Hindemith’s music a threat to the established regime, and outlawed performances of his compositions.  According to Kater (2000), Hindemith at first resisted the prospect of leaving Germany.  Rather than emigrate, he strove to export the German culture through his music.  Based upon his previous touring experiences in the United States, Hindemith deemed America a land of limited opportunity. 

         Arnold (1983) contended that under growing pressure from the Nazi government, Hindemith eventually chose to leave Germany.  Schubert (2001) noted that Hindemith moved to Switzerland in 1938; however, he additionally toured the United States for months at a time before he accepted a permanent teaching position at Yale in 1940.  During these transient years, Hindemith furthered his compositional output.  Thompson (1973) noted that Hindemith published the Sonata for Horn in F while he travelled between America and Switzerland.  Comprised of three movements, massig bewegt, ruhih bewegt, and lebhaft, the Sonata for Horn in F premiered in 1939.  Kennedy (1980) observed that the horn sonata marked the first of several compositions Hindemith wrote for the horn.  In addition to the sonata, Hindemith produced a sonata for the also horn in 1943, horn concerto in 1949, and a sonata for four horns in 1952. 

Kater (2000) asserted that Hindemith valued the concept of Gebrachmusik, or music with function; therefore, Hindemith often wrote for soloists or small ensembles.  In addition to the horn sonata, Hindemith wrote sonatas for wind and string instruments.  Thompson (1973) contended that throughout his career, Hindemith published six violin sonatas, seven viola sonatas, and three sonatas for cello.  During World War II, Hindemith published several sonatas for wind instruments in addition to the horn sonata.  Kuhn (2001) noted that in 1936, Hindemith wrote a sonata for flute; in 1938, he produced sonatas for both the bassoon and oboe.  Hindemith published both the horn sonata and a trumpet sonata in 1939; in addition, he wrote sonatas for the English horn and trombone in 1941.  Although filled with uncertainty, travel, and political persecution, the years of World War II proved productive for Hindemith.





Unit Four: Musical Elements



         Written in common time, the first movement of Hindemith’s Sonata for Horn in F begins with the tempo marking ‘Massig bewegt,’ meaning moderate tempo.  Hindemith’s metronomic marking indicates that the quarter note beat equals 100 beats per minute (bpm).  The time signature does not change throughout the movement; however, Hindemith includes terminology that implies a change in tempo.  In measure 55, the musical marking ‘Frisch’ dictates strength and motion; this marking implies a slight increase in tempo.  In measure 139, the term ‘Lebhaft,’ which means lively, also necessitates a faster tempo.  In measure 157, the direction ‘verbreitrn,’ or broadening, implies a slower, stately tempo. 

The movement features several recurring rhythmic motifs, particularly instances of an eight note followed by two sixteenths.  This motif occurs multiples times in the section between measures 60 and 84.  Another recurring rhythm first transpires between measures 45 and 55.  The syncopated pattern of eight and dotted quarter notes within this passage also occurs between measures 127 and 132.  The key signature does not indicate sharps or flats; however, Hindemith employs accidentals throughout the movement.  This use of frequent accidentals evokes a lush chromaticism in the melodic line.  Hindemith’s placement of extended phrase markings gives the theme a flowing lyrical quality. 

The melody features chromaticism punctuated by interval leaps; the intervals of sixths and fourths contain particular prominence in the initial theme.  Hindemith employs bi-tonality in the relationship between the piano and horn parts; in addition, he staggers rhythmic motifs to create a call and answer effect between the piano and horn.  The polyphonic tension between the piano and horn builds excitement throughout the movement before each instrument concludes the movement with a resolute assertion of concert F. 



Unit Five: Technical Considerations

         In performing the Sonata for Horn in F, the horn player must take range and endurance into consideration.  The majority of the piece features a forte dynamic and occurs in the upper range; this style of performance taxes the embouchure and requires considerable lip strength and endurance.  During the softer sections, Hindemith dictates octave slurs at a piano dynamic; this feat necessitates advanced air control and embouchure support.  In terms of ensemble, the piano and horn parts rarely share similar rhythms; this presents a challenge in collaboration. 



Unit Six: Form and Structure

         Hindemith’s Sonata for Horn in F integrates both traditional aspects of a sonata and twentieth century compositional techniques.  Comprised of three movements, Hindemith’s Sonata for Horn in F follows the sonata’s traditional pattern of an initial fast movement, a second slower movement, and a concluding fast movement.  The first movement, which lasts approximately six minutes, consists of a quasi-sonata form; the movement follows the basic structure of sonata from while incorporating elements of twentieth century composition. 

Spanning the first two minutes of the piece, the quasi-exposition occurs between measures one and 55.  The initial forte dynamic level, extended phrase markings, and slurs establish a robust mood during this section.  Measures 23 through 31 feature a softer dynamic that evokes an ethereal ambiance; however, the stalwart quality of the earlier measures returns in measure 40.  The quasi-exposition concludes with a linear cadence in the piano part between measures fifty-two and fifty-three followed by the assertion of a concert A in the horn part. 

The quasi-development emerges at approximately the second minute of the piece and spans measures 55 to 92.  The addition of sixteenth notes adds a sense of urgency to this section; the shorter duration of notes adds momentum and gives the melodic line a driving motion.  This passage has qualities typical of a development due to the modulatory nature of the recurring rhythms between measures 55 and 84.  In the third beat of measure 92, the melodic line of the exposition returns and signifies the quasi-recapitulation. 

The quasi-exposition falls between measures 92 and 138 and spans approximately two minutes.  During this quasi-recapitulation, Hindemith restates both the initial strong melodic line as well as the softer sections.  This section concludes with a linear cadence; the horn and piano hold the final chord of the section at a pianissimo dynamic.  The final section of the movement, measures 139 through 161, act as a coda and comprises the last minute of the piece.  Measure 139 features another statement of the initial theme; however, the main theme modulates between measures 145 and 152.  Measures 152 through 156 comprise the final statement of the original theme.  Measures 157 through 161 serve as a codetta; the musical direction “verbreitern,” or widening, provides the movement with a resounding conclusion. 

Diagram: Sonata for Horn in F

Exposition                                                  Development          Recapitulation           

Theme Group 1          Theme Group 2                                  Theme Group 1          Theme Group 2           (mm #1-22)                    (mm #23-55)                      (mm #55-92)  (mm #92-105)          (mm # 105-138)



Coda

(m#139-161)

Unit Seven: Discography

Sonata for Horn in F-Paul Hindemith

Zita Carno-horn

1993-Crystal Records

ASIN: B000003J64



Sonata for Horn in F-Paul Hindemith

Dennis Brain-horn

2005-BBC Legends

ASIN: B000679MGA



Sonata for Horn in F- Paul Hindemith

Mason Jones-horn

2011-Sony Classical Records

ASIN: B0000028O9



Sonata for Horn in F- Paul Hindemith

Gail Williams- horn

1995- Summit Classical

ASIN: B0000038IN



Sonata for Horn in F- Paul Hindemith

Joseph Anderer- horn

2009-Kleo Classics

ASIN: B002CZN9WM



Sonata for Horn in F- Paul Hindemith

Douglas Hill

1996-Crystal Records

ASIN: B000038IBR



Sonata for Horn in F- Paul Hindemith

Zdenek Divoky

1987-Opus Records

ASIN: B001AW0002



























Unit Eight: Bibliography



Arnold, D. (1983). Hindemith, Paul. In The new Oxford companion to music (Vol. 1, pp. 857-858).          New York: Oxford University Press. 



Arnold, D. (1983). Sonata. In The new Oxford companion to music (Vol. 2). New York: Oxford          University Press. 



Green, D. (1965). The Sonata Form. In Form in tonal music. New York: Holt, Rinehart,          and Winston, Incorporated. 



Griffiths, P. (2011). Sonata. In Grove music online. Retrieved from          http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com



Kater, M. H. (2000). Composers of the nazi era: Eight portraits. New York: Oxford University Press. 



Kennedy, M. (1980). Hindemith, Paul. In The concise Oxford dictionary of music (3rd ed.)

(pp. 299-301). New York: Oxford University Press. 



Kuhn, L. (2001). Hindemith, Paul. In Baker’s biographical dictionary of musicians

(Vol. 3, pp. 1568-1570). New York: Schirmer Books. 



Webster, J. (2001). Sonata. In The new grove dictionary of music and musicians (2nd ed.)

(Vol. 23, pp. 671-685). Sadie, S. (Ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishers Limited.



Sadie, S. (1988). Sonata. In The Norton grove concise encyclopedia of music (pp. 708-709). New York:          Macmillan Publishers Limited. 



Schubert, G. (2011). Hindemith, Paul. In Grove music online. Retrieved from          http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com



Schubert, G. (2001). Hindemith, Paul. In The new grove dictionary of music and musicians (2nd ed.)          (Vol. 11, pp. 523-538). Sadie, S. (Ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishers Limited. 



Stein, L. (1979). Structure and style: the study and analysis of musical forms. New York: Summy          Birchard Incorporated. 



Thompson, K. (1973). Hindemith, Paul. In A dictionary of 20th century composers 1911-1971

(pp. 181-209). New York,: St.  Martin’s Press.



















Horn Concerto No. 2 in E-flat Major, K. 417

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)





Unit One: Composer Profile

         A prolific and virtuosic composer, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) produced compositions in a vast array of genres and revolutionized the concerto during the classical era.  Scholars (Arnold, 1983; Kuhn, 2001; Slonimsky, 2001) asserted that although Mozart lived in Salzburg for the first few years of his life, gave concerts throughout Europe during his youth.  Arnold (1983) noted that Mozart’s father, Leopold Mozart (1719-1787), recognized Mozart’s prodigious musical skill and arranged for him to give concerts in cities such as Munich, Vienna, Paris, and London.  Eisen (2011) avowed that while in Germany, Mozart met Johann Christian Bach (1735-1782) and drew influence from Bach’s compositional techniques.  Arnold (1983) contended that after Mozart outgrew the image a child prodigy, he began his compositional career in earnest and produced sonatas and concertos that he performed throughout Austria. 

         Slonimsky and Kuhn (2001) noted that in 1769, Mozart toured Italy and in 1770 received commission to write an opera.  Arnold (1983) asserted that although Mozart composed several more Italian operas in subsequent years, he returned to Salzburg in 1773 to continue his musical career.  Eisen (2011) declared that during the late 1770s, Mozart composed four symphonies and chamber music that featured a unique style of orchestration.  Arnold (1983) contended that although Mozart produced both church and secular compositions, he did not receive a court appointment.  Scholars (Arnold, 1983; Kuhn, 2001; and Slonimsky, 2001) agreed that Leopold Mozart combatted his son’s lack of commercial success with another tour.

         Arnold (1983) identified this tour as Mozart’s most important travel experience because he garnered influence from the musical styles of foreign composers he encountered during this tour.  Eisen (2011) contended that after the death of his mother, Mozart returned to Salzburg in 1779 and accepted the position of court organist.  Arnold (1983) avowed that the Archbishop did not express interest in grand orchestral music; therefore, Mozart’s duties “presented little challenge” (p. 1211).  Kuhn and Slonimsky (2001) noted that Mozart accepted other composition jobs; his subsequent absences from court created discord with the Archbishop. Sanborn (1985) asserted that in 1781, Mozart and the Archbishop quarreled and Mozart left the Archbishop’s service and pursued a freelance career.

         Sanborn (1985) noted that although teaching presented an opportunity for income, Mozart disliked the role of teacher and instead supported himself through performances of his own compositions.  Arnold (1983) asserted that during Mozart’s years as a freelance musician, he produced nine piano concertos and the six quartets; he dedicated the quartets to Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809).  Kuhn and Slonimsky (2001) declared that in 1782, Mozart placed himself under more financial strain when he married Constanze Weber (1762-1842).  According to Eisen (2011), Weber bore two sons; however, only one survived past infancy.  Sanborn (1985) contended that during the 1780s, Mozart achieved moderate success with the premiers of operas Le nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni, yet he continued to accumulate debt.

         Kuhn and Slonimsky (2001) avowed that in an attempt to earn more money, Mozart travelled to Berlin in 1789.  Arnold (1983) noted that although the journey did not alleviate Mozart’s financial burden, it proved useful musically.  Eisen (2011) asserted that while in Germany, Mozart studied the works of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) and incorporated Bach’s contrapuntal techniques into his subsequent compositions.  Sanborn (1985) contended that after returning to Austria, Mozart continued to produce operas such as the Così fan tutte and La clemenza di Tito.  Sandor (2001) asserted that in 1790, Mozart received an anonymous commission to write a Requiem Mass; he died before he completed the work.  After he fell ill in late 1791, Mozart died a pauper on December 5, 1791.  Scholars (Arnold, 1983; Kuhn, 2001; Sandor, 2001; Slonimsky 2001) agree that Mozart’s prolific compositional career and virtuosic ability render him an integral component of the classical canon.  Unit Two: Historical Perspectives

Hutchings (2011) defined a concerto as an instrumental work that features contrast between a solo instrument and an orchestral ensemble.  Arnold (1983) asserted that before the 1700s, concertos did not follow a specified form and pertained to both instrumental and vocal works.  Hutchings (2011) noted that during the early seventeenth century, the term concerto often applied to vocal music accompanied by an instrumental ensemble.  The instrumental concerto rose in prevalence during the latter half of the seventeenth century.  Hutchings and Tablot (2001) contended that similar in form to the sonata, the early classical concerto replaced the piano with a string ensemble.

According to Hutchings (2011), Giuseppe Torelli (1658-1709) furthered the development of the concerto when he published the first purely instrumental concertos.  Wolf (2003) asserted that in 1700, Tomaso Albioni (1671-1751) composed concertos with alternating fast and slow movements.  Hutchings (2011) contended that there emerged two types of concertos: the Roman concerto and the North Italian concerto.  Thompson (1985) avowed that based upon the traditional orchestral structure of the area, the Roman concerto contained four distinctive violin parts while North Italian concertos featured simple orchestration.  Hutchins (2011) noted that Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) published the earliest Roman concertos in 1714; the Roman concerto gained importance when it spread to Germany and England.

According to Wolf (2003), Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) furthered the growth of the concerto during the Baroque era.  Hutchings (2011) asserted that Vivaldi's prolific compositional output along with the rise of the printing press popularized the concerto throughout Europe. Hutchings and Talbot (2001) noted that during the Baroque era, a solo concerto featured a single solo instrument while a concerto grosso featured a group of solo instruments.  Arnold (1983) contended that during the Classical Era, the concerto grosso declined in prevalence and the term concerto referred to a solo concerto.

Hutchings (2011) asserted that J.S. Bach bridged the gap between the Baroque and Classical concerto.  According to Thompson (1985), Mozart arranged the keyboard works of J.S. Bach; in later years, Mozart elaborated on Bach's principles of composition.  Wolf (2003) avowed that just as Vivaldi fostered the Baroque concerto, Mozart established Classical concerto form when he incorporated sonata form into his concertos.  Hutchings (2011) noted that Mozart created a dialogue between the soloist and orchestra and required more virtuosic playing in the solo part.  Arnold (1983) contended that although composers favored wind instruments during the earlier portion of the century, there emerged an increased output of piano concertos during the later Classical era.



Unit Three: Historical Circumstances

         According to Kuhn and Slonimsky (2001), Mozart wrote four horn concertos during his final decade in Vienna; while the first concerto consisted of two movements, the second, third, and fourth concertos featured three movements.  Atkins (2009) noted that Mozart wrote the concertos for his friend Joseph Leutgeb (1732-1811), a virtuosic horn player who lived in Vienna.  Eisen (2011) avowed that Mozart published the second horn concerto in E-flat major in 1786.  Scholars (Eisen, 2011; Kuhn, 2001; Slonimsky, 2001) asserted that Mozart produced the horn concertos during the latter portion of his career when he supported himself solely through composition.  Atkins (2009) defended that Mozart wrote the concertos for natural horn; therefore, contemporary performances on horns with valves sound more open than the performances on natural horns of Mozart’s lifetime.



Unit Four: Musical Elements

Written in common time, the first movement of Mozart's second horn concerto begins at an allegro maestoso tempo.  Sixteenth note runs establish a sense of motion throughout the movement.  Written in B-flat major, the melody is both lyrical and evokes a cheerful mood. Instances of trills in and repeated staccato notes embellish the horn's thematic material.  Mozart wrote with a polyphonic texture and featured interplay between the orchestral and horn parts.

         The second movement dictates three-eight time at an andante tempo.  A sweeping lyrical melody provides a respite between the energetic first and last movements.  Written in F major, the main theme incorporates a lilting eighth note melody.  The horn's leaps into the lower register create a whimsical mood throughout.

         Written with a six-eight time signature, the third movement features a return to E-flat major key signature and allegro tempo marking.  The rollicking melody incorporates elements of hunting calls.  The polyphonic texture between the horn and orchestra adds further motion and excitement.



Unit Five: Technical Considerations

         In order to play the first and third movements, the horn player must be proficient in lip trills.  Mozart incorporates grace note ornamentations throughout the three movements; these passages require finger dexterity and effective subdivision.  The thematic material includes arpeggiated passages; these sections necessitate particular attention to intonation.





Unit Six: Analysis

Movement One: ‘Allegro’

In the first movement, written in sonata form, the exposition occurs in the orchestral line between measures one and 24.  The horn solo enters at measure 25.  Theme group one of the exposition features a B-flat major tonality and spans measures 25 to 45.  The second theme group of the exposition changes to an F major tonality and occurs between measures 45 and 90.  The development begins at measure 91.  Modulatory in nature, the development continues until measure 125.  The recapitulation begins at measure 126.  The first theme group occurs between measures 126 and 146 and features a B-flat major tonality.  The second theme group changes to C major and falls between measures 147 and 167.  The coda concludes the movement with a B-flat major tonality and spans measures 167 through 191.



Diagram Movement One: ‘Allegro’



Exposition

Theme Group 1          Theme Group 2                                        

(mm #25-45)                    (mm #45-90)

B-flat major                    F major          



Development: (mm #91-125)

C minor



Recapitulation

Theme Group 1          Theme Group 2                    

(mm #126-146)          (mm #147-167)          

B-flat major                    F major                    



Coda

(mm #167-191)

B-flat major





Movement Two:  ‘Andante’



The second movement, spanning just over three minutes, features strophic form and serves as a slower transition between the first and third movements.  During the first ten measures, the orchestra provides the introduction; the horn enters with the main theme in measure 11.  The horn plays the A theme in F major between measures 11 and 26.  The B theme occurs at measure 26 and features the dominant.  The initial theme returns between measures 39 and 49 followed by a restatement of the B theme that spans measures 49 and 61.  The A theme occurs at measure 62 followed by a variation of the B theme at measure 68.  The conclusion spans measures 74 through 82.





Diagram of Movement Two: ‘Andante’

Introduction (mm # 1-10)

F major



A                    B                    A1                    B1                    A2                    B2

(mm # 11-25)          (mm # 26-38)          (mm # 39-49)          (mm # 50-61)          (mm # 62-67)          (mm # 68-73)

F major          C major          F major          B-flat major          F major          B-flat major



C

(mm # 77-82)

F major



Movement Three: ‘Rondo’          

Written in rondo form, the third movement features a rollicking melody that incorporates elements of hunting horn calls.  The initial statement of theme occurs between measures 1 and 38.  The B section dictates a dolce style and spans measures 39 through 47.  The A section returns between measures 47 and 69.  The C section features a g minor tonality and occurs from measure 70 to measure 97.  The subsequent A section dictates a change to a piano dynamic and occurs between measures 97 and 112.  The D section remains at a piano dynamic level and spans measures 113 through 141.  The final A section begins at measure 141.  The main theme repeats at measure 152 at a faster tempo; measures 158 though 166 serve as the conclusion.





Diagram of Movement Three: ‘Rondo’

A                    B                    A1                    C                    A2                    D

(mm # 1-39)          (mm # 39-47)          (mm # 48-70)          (mm # 70-97)          (mm # 97-112)(mm # 113-141)

B-flat major          F major          B-flat major          g minor          B-flat major          



A3

(mm # 141-158)



Coda

(mm # 158-166)

Unit Seven: Discography

Concerto No. 2 in E-flat Major K. 417—Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

         Dennis Brain—horn

         1999—EMI Classics

         ASIN: B00000GCAD



Concerto No. 2 in E-flat Major K. 417—Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

         Lowell Greer—horn

         2001—HMF Classical Exp.

         ASIN: B000056F7K



Concerto No. 2 in E-flat Major K. 417—Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

         Radovan Vlatkovic—horn

         2000—EMI Classics

         ASIN: B00004TV9F



Concerto No. 2 in E-flat Major K. 417—Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

         Barry Tuckwell—horn

         2003—EMI Classics

         ASIN: B00005RD9N



Concerto No. 2 in E-flat Major K. 417—Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

         Gunter Hoegner—horn

         1984—Deutsche Grammophon

         ASIN: B00000E2WP



Concerto No. 2 in E-flat Major K. 417—Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

         Gunter Hoegner—horn

         1984—Deutsche Grammophon

         ASIN: B00000E2WP



Concerto No. 2 in E-flat Major K. 417—Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

         Alan Civil—horn

         2003—Penatone

         ASIN: 9051861052

















Unit Eight: Bibliography

Arnold, D. (1983). Mozart. In The new oxford companion to music (Vol. 2, pp. 1209-1214). New          York: Oxford University Press.



Arnold, D. (1983). Concerto. In The new oxford companion to music (Vol. 1, pp. 462-466). New          York: Oxford University Press.



Atkins, K. (2009). The Horn Works of Leopold Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Franz Xavier          Mozart. Senior Thesis, Ball State University, Indiana. Retrieved from www.questia.com.          



Eisen, C. (2011). Mozart. In Grove music online. Retrieved from www.oxfordmusiconline.com.



Hutchings, A. (2011). Concerto. In Grove music online. Retrieved from

         www.oxfordmusiconline.com.



Hutchings, A. and Talbot, M. (2001). Concerto. In The new grove dictionary of music and

         musicians (Vol. 6, pp. 240-260). Sadie, S. (Ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishers          Limited.



Kuhn, L. and Slonimsky, N. (2001). Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. In Baker’s biographical

         dictionary of musicians (Vol. 4, pp. 2529-2538). New York: Schirmer Books.



Sanborn, P. (1985). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. In The international cyclopedia of music and          musicians (pp. 1442-1456). Thompson, O. (Ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead, & Company.



Sandor, P. (2001). Mozart. In The new grove dictionary of music and musicians (Vol. 17, pp. 271-350).          Sadie, S. (Ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishers Limited.



Thompson, O. (1985). Concerto. In The international cyclopedia of music and musicians (pp. 447-448).          New York: Dodd, Mead, & Company.



Wolf, E. (2003). Concerto. In The Harvard dictionary of music (pp. 197-202). Randel, D. (Ed.).          Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.



























Nocturno

Franz Joseph Strauss (1822-1905)





Unit One: Composer Profile          

         A renowned horn player of the late Romantic period, Franz Joseph Strauss (1822-1905) contributed to solo horn repertoire.  Slonimsky (1985) asserted that born in Germany in 1822, Strauss began his musical studied at age seven and exhibited virtuosic skill on the guitar and brass instruments.  Ericson (2003) avowed that as a teenager, Strauss chose the horn as his major instrument and studied performance and composition.  Kennedy (2012) contended that Strauss composed the Romance for horn early in his career.  Randel (1996) noted that in 1847, Strauss accepted the position of principal horn of the Munich Court Opera Orchestra.  Ericson (2003) claimed that in 1851, Strauss married Elise Seiff (n.d.); however, she died of cholera early in their marriage.

         Scholars (Kuhn, 2001; McIntire, 2001; Slonimsky, 2001) defended that after he accepted a full time orchestra position, Strauss continued to compose for solo horn.  According to Slonimsky (1985), Strauss composed the Horn Concerto in C minor 1865.  Ericson (2003) noted that in the 1860s, Strauss married his second wife, Josephine Pschorr (1837-1910); together they had two children.  Kennedy (2012) asserted that Strauss’s son Richard Strauss (1864-1949) became a celebrated composer of the twentieth century.  Randel (2003) asserted that in the 1880s, Strauss published Nocturno Op.7 for horn and piano.

         Scholars (Kuhn, 2001; McIntire, 2001; Slonimsky, 2001) contended that until his retirement in 1889, Strauss appeared as a solo hornist at the Hofoper in Munich.  Kennedy (2012) claimed that Strauss cultivated a reputation as a horn authority; composer Richard Wagner (1813-1883) consulted Strauss about prominent horn lines.  Slonimsky (1985) noted that although Strauss considered himself anti-Wagnerian, he played in the orchestra for Wagner’s operas.  Randel (2003) contended that Strauss played the premiers of Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde in 1865, Die Meistersinger in 1868, and Parsifal in 1882.

         Kennedy (2012) defended that in addition to his performance schedule, Strauss maintained a career in music education.  Scholars (Kuhn, 2001; McIntire, 2001; Slonimsky, 2001) asserted that he served as the Professor of Horn at the Akademie der Tonkunst until 1896.  Randel (2003) avowed that from 1875 until 1896, Strauss conducted an amateur orchestra in Munich.  Ericson (2003) asserted that Strauss died in Munich in 1905.



Unit Two: Historical Perspectives

         Kennedy (2012) defended that originally deemed “Notturnos,” the musical compositions titled nocturnes evoke a romantic nighttime atmosphere (p. 1).  Arnold (1983) noted that in the eighteenth century, the term “nocturno” applied to compositions played for evening entertainment (p. 1245).  Wolf (2003) declared that Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) wrote noctturni during the eighteenth century.  Brown and Hamilton (2001) asserted that composer John Field (1782-1837) first used the title “nocturne” for the lyrical piano pieces he wrote between 1812 and 1836 (p. 11).

         Arnold (1983) avowed that Frèdèric Chopin (1810-1849) established the nocturne as a specific genre of Romantic piano music.  Wolf (2003) defended that Chopin’s nocturnes represented the apex of the pianistic nocturne; however, composers continued to produce nocturnes for piano and other instruments.  Brown and Hamilton (2001) contended that in 1842, Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847) wrote incidental music for A Midsummer Night’s Dream that, like the nocturnos of the eighteenth century, featured the horn’s tone color to evoke the image of night.  Wolf (2003) noted that Claude Debussy produced three orchestral nocturnes between 1897 and 1899.  Ericson (2003) avowed that Strauss published the Nocturno during the late nineteenth century. 



Unit Three: Circumstances of Composition

         Scholars (Brown, 2001; Ericson, 2003; Hamilton, 2001) asserted that the Nocturno's exact publication date remains unknown.  Randel (2003) contended that Strauss composed the Nocturno during the 1880s.  Slonimsky (1985) noted that during the 1880s, Strauss maintained an active schedule as a horn soloist and educator.  Kennedy (2012) declared that Strauss composed the Nocturno during Richard Strauss's early childhood.  Randel (1996) avowed that Richard Strauss drew influence from his father's career and produced two renowned concertos for the horn.