Learning Theories-ETC 547

How has the use of technology impacted teaching and learning in the PK-16 classroom?

Abstract:
This paper defines five different learning theories, explains the impact they have on education and technology. It also will summarize the main point in the paper and provide ideas to the question “now what”?

Brief description of the learning theories:

Behaviorism:

“Behaviorism is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do—including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors.” (Wikipedia) J. B. Watson believed that behaviors were produced because of a specific condition that was introduced. He became influenced by Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov who coined the term classical conditioning when studying dogs and their reactions when presented with a particular stimulus.
Another psychologist, B.F. Skinner developed the term radical behaviorism because of the acceptance of feelings, state of mind, and introspection as existent and scientifically treatable. Skinner also coined the term operant conditioning which is the theory based on rewards and punishment. Skinner believed that behaviors could be changed or improved based on the introduction of positive and negative rewards.
These theories can be found in today’s classrooms. Teachers use several systems of rewards and punishments in order to set parameters for the students. Teachers develop checklists and charts in which to track this information. There are also several different computer programs that put this theory into play. Programmers developed software such Math Blasters which is a drill and kill type program that rewards children for correct answers enabling the child to continue forward in the program.

Social Learning Theories:

Social Learning Theories were developed by Albert Bandura who believed that behavior is learned by the observation and modeling of the behaviors, attitudes and emotions of others. Human behavior is explained in terms of the interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. “The component processes underlying observational learning are: (1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement. (Bandura, 1977)
These theories also have strong ties to criminology because Bandura thought that children learn from what they observe in their world around them. They learn from what they see on television, in video games, and family interactions. Therefore, if children learn from what they observe, educators and parents need to continuously model appropriate behavior as well as model tasks that need to be completed throughout their education.
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model.
2. Retention: the observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction: the third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical motion.
4. Motivation: the final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation; learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the same behavior differently. (Abbot)
Social learning theories have also impacted technology by showing software companies the need for modeling good or appropriate behavior. Software uses such phrases like thank you which shows children the correct way to answer. This is just a very simple example however good behavior becomes contagious when modeled continuously.

Cognitive Learning Theories:
Cognitive learning theories were first studied by Jean Piaget in 1952, who studied children in their natural environment. “Piaget thought that children’s knowledge was composed of schemas, basic units of knowledge used to organize past experiences and serve as a basis for understanding new ones.” (Encyclopedia of psychology) Piaget termed two complementary terms assimilation and association. The belief was that a child’s schemata act as a concept map in the child’s brain. Everything learned is connected to something else. In this way cognitive learning theories concentrate more on how the brain is working to process the knowledge verses the environment creating the knowledge.
Cognitive learning theories are present in technology through the use of concept maps or graphic organizers, hypertext and multimedia presentations. Each of these examples starts with a concept that is then built upon.

Constructivism:
“Constructivism is a set of assumptions about the nature of human learning that guide constructivist learning theories and teaching methods of education. Constructivism values developmentally appropriate teacher-supported learning that is initiated and directed by the student.” (Wikipedia) Constructivism is a learning theory that promotes student centered activities. The belief is that students gain better understanding when they work through problems in small groups. The interaction of these groups allows the students to gain comprehension. It also allows them the ability to take the information learned and use it in other situations. The constructivist’s view has been influenced by many intelligent people such as Jean Piaget, John Dewey, Jerome Bruner and Lev Vygotsky.
Technology has been incredibly influenced by constructivism because programs have been designed to allow the students to work through problems which will lead them to their own answers. One such program is the Jasper Videodisc Series which takes the students on an adventure using mathematical problems. Other programs can be produced by teachers such as web quests which are interactive curriculum which is web based.

Constructionism:

“Constructivism holds that learning can happen felicitously when people are actively making things in the real world.” (Wikipedia) This theory was introduced by Seymour Papert, a mathematician who believed that learning was reconstruction verses a transmission of knowledge.
Papert started working with children in the 1960’s using personal computers to enhance creativity and learning. As a professor at MIT he led research using children and computers. He created a program called Logo which was used to put computations into children’s toys. Papert is known for his influential role in the idea that technology can provide children with new ways of learning and retaining information. He also helped developed a website along with CEO Dr. Idit Harel called MaMaMedia which contains activities for children based on the constructionists theory of learning.
Constructionism has had a major impact on technology largely in part by Seymour Papert. He has showed how technology can enhance educational practices and change the role of the teacher from facilitator to servant. It is the teacher’s role to help guide the students through the activity but still keeping them in the driver seat. Constructionism is based on creativity of the students where they build or construct knowledge.

History of Technology Use in Schools:

The history of technology use in schools starts very simple then works its way into what we now know as the norm. The following information is a combination found from the University of Illinois and from a history of computers in education timeline. Technology started back in the early 1900’s but for this paper’s purpose, we will start in 1962 with the PLATO instructional computing system being used in college and K-12 classrooms. Then in 1964 IBM brings out the MT/ST (Magnetic Tape/Selectric Typewriter). This then led to the Logo program being developed and Texas Instruments develops the first hand-held calculator in 1967. From there The Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) is established as a national information system and Douglas Engelbart introduces a prototype of the computer mouse, the "x-y position indicator for a display system” in 1968. By 1969 the Arpanet is constructed and Scholar is developed by Jaime Carbonell, as the first Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS).
The seventies continued with the Arpanet going online and the Altair 8800 leads the way for personal computers. Ray Kurzweil and company create the Kurzweil Reading Machine and the first omni-font OCR (Optical Character Recognition) technology. Then Apple introduced the Apple II in 1975. Some Apple 1 PC’s were donated to schools and schools have started to adopt mainframes and minicomputers while refusing to consider PCs. Japan Victor Company (JVC) introduces the VHS format video cassette recorder and Radio Shack introduces the TRS-80. In 1978 HyperStudio, a multimedia authoring tool that allows people to communicate ideas on diskette, CD-ROM or Internet has entered the market. By 1979, 15 Million PCs estimated to be in use worldwide; PC-based spreadsheets developed, mainframes and minicomputers still in wide use.
The eighties begin strong with the development of the Apple IIe, the Macintosh; Commodore introduces the Commodore 64 and CD-ROM players for computers. In 1981 IBM is the first mainframe manufacturer to develop a PC; drill and practice CAI gains acceptance in schools and the first educational drill and practice programs are developed for personal computers. Then by 1986, 25 % of high schools use PCs for college and career guidance, K-8 schools buying mostly Apple II and Macintosh computers, high schools buying mostly DOS-based clones.
Multimedia PCs are developed in 1990 and schools are using videodiscs, object-oriented multimedia authoring tools are in wide use; Simulations, educational databases and other types of CAI programs are being delivered on CD-ROM disks, many with animation and sound. By 1994 digital video, virtual reality, and 3-D systems capture the attention of many, but fewer multimedia PCs than basic business PCs are sold; object-oriented authoring systems such as HyperCard, Hyperstudio, and Authorware grow in popularity in schools; most US classrooms now have at least one PC available for instructional delivery, but not all teachers have access to a computer for instructional preparation. In 1995, the Internet and the World Wide Web began to catch on as businesses, schools, and individuals create web pages; most CAI is delivered on CD-ROM disks and is growing in popularity.
From 1997 to 2007 the growth of the internet expands far faster than most predicted. It soon becomes the world's largest database of information, graphics, and streaming video making it an invaluable resource for educators; but marketing-oriented web pages, computer viruses hidden within downloadable programs and/or graphics, and spam (widely disseminated email-based sales pitches) threaten its usefulness. Search engines such as Google and Yahoo constantly develop new ways to find information within the ever-growing number of web pages. Web sites that offer individuals a place to put personal information become popular, as does internet-based publishing and discussion forums. Voice recognition slowly enters the computing mainstream, but its development is slowed by an unacceptable frequency of errors. Some computers incorporate TV input, but it is not as common as many predicted. Educational software becomes more useful and interesting to students as graphics and video are incorporated. Larger computer storage capacity and the growing prevalence of CD-ROM and DVD drives in personal computers make it easier for educators to store large graphic and video and sound files for educational applications. Classroom teachers also have access to Smart Boards which are able to project information from a lap top while also allowing the teacher and students to interact with the board. The teacher can use the Smart Board in the same way she uses a whiteboard. Technology has come a long way and still has a long way to go. Educators need to make sure they are keeping up as much as possible or they will be left behind.

Summary:

This paper defined Behaviorism, Social learning theories, Cognitive learning theories, Constructivism, and Constructionism as they pertain to education. It further gave examples of the impact these learning theories have had on technology. Technology has been greatly affected by all of these strategies because each one when intertwined with the others can help create a well rounded curriculum and basis for the technology. Creators of technology have studied these theories in order to create software and equipment that benefit the students and teacher that use them. Technology plays an important part in today’s classrooms. Students usually know more than their teacher, which actually isn’t always good. It is our job as educators to model appropriate behavior when it comes to the use of technology. For example, cell phones have creped into the classrooms. As educators, it is our job to model good behavior by not using ours during class and when a student has one, taking the time to explain the rules to the students. Communication is a key to technology in the classroom.
The next step to achieve the advancement of the use of technology in the schools is training. Many teachers have the technology in their classrooms; however, they do not have the knowledge to use the equipment or the time to create the innovative lessons in which to incorporate the technology. I think administrations need to bring in qualified personnel and give teachers the time needed to learn how to use the equipment. I also believe that we need to be able to teach in a more constructivist’s way. Lately it seems that we are so concerned with AIMs and NCLB that we forget that learning should be fun and creative. I was always taught not to teach to the test and now it seems that is what I am being told to do. Thematic teaching is becoming a thing of the past, especially with the way the standards have been written.
Technology needs to be placed in the forefront of education. The job force needs to be able to use computers more and we, as educators, need to help implement this knowledge. Every classroom should have a Smart Board, Projector, several computers, educational software and tools for the students to create electronic portfolios or projects. Along with all these “things”, must be teachers dedicated to continuous learning of the technological devices and practices being developed everyday.

Bibliography


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Cognitive Development Retrieved June 24, 2007 from
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Cunia, E. (2003). Cognitive Learning Theory – Web Quest Retrieved June 22, 2007
from http://suedstudent.syr.edu/~ebarrett/ide621/cognitive.htm

History of Computers in Education. Retrieved June 25, 2007 from
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Perkins, D. N. (May, 1991) Technology Meets Constructivism: Do They Make a Marriage? [Electronic Version]. Educational Technology, v31 n5 p18-23

Papert, S. MaMaMedia Website. Retrieved June 20, 2007 from http://www.mamamedia.com/

Papert, S. Situating Constructionism. Retrieved June 20, 2007 from
http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html



Robinson, Ken (2007, June 15) OLPC News: Professor Seymour Papert’s “The Connected Family” [Webcast] Retrieved June 23, 2007 from
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University of Illinois. (November 2007) Educational Technology Timeline. Retrieved June 25, 2007 from
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Wikipedia (2007), Behaviorism. Retrieved June 21, 2007 from
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Wikipedia (2007). Constructivism. Retrieved June 21, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_%28learning_theory%29

Wikipedia (2007). Constructionism. Retrieved June 21, 2007 from
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