Technology in Education and Society

A History of Technology in Education and Society

Abstract
The following paper will examine the history of technology in education and technology’s impact on learning in the classroom. Beginning with the printing press, the history of technology in the classroom will be examined focusing on the inventions impacting the 20th century classroom. The roles of films, radio, television, personal computers and the Internet will be examined briefly. This paper will also look at technology in society and how older adults are using educational games to remain cognitively fit. Finally, the paper will conclude with ideas about how technology can better integrate into the classroom.

Introduction
Many people believe technology in education began with the introduction of the computer. However, educators have been attempting to integrate technology into the classroom since the turn of the century. This paper will look into the history of technology in education and how it has impacted teaching in the classroom.
Printing Press
One of the most significant technological advancement that has affected education would have to be the printing press. Developed in 1452 by Johannes Gutenburg, the printing press used a system of movable letters. This movable system reduced the cost of printing and allowed all to have access to printed text. Educational information could be produced rapidly and in mass. Without Gutenburg’s technological innovation, classrooms would lack the textbooks we take for granted.
Film
Developed in 1889, commercial films quickly became successful by the early 1900s. In 1910, the public school system of Rochester, NY, became the first to adopt silent instructional films for instructional purposes (Hew, 2004). Some of the strongest supporters for the use of film in education were Thomas Edison and the Ford Company. However, the content quality and information was lacking in early films. Most films consisted of failed commercial films reedited and passed off as educational films (Fabos, 2001). Because of this poor start, film never really caused a major change in education and was used infrequently by the early 1950s. Content quality is still a concern for use of film in the classroom today.
Radio
Educational radio programs first began broadcasting in the early 1920s (Fabos, 2001). While innovative, radio technology was fairly simple, easy to use, and could reach a large population outside of the classroom. Additional characteristics, such as its low cost, its ability to bring dramatic feeling into the classroom, and the fact that listening can foster imagination on the part of the listener also made radio educationally valuable (Hew, 2004). Many of the initial radio licenses were granted to educational institutions with over 200 granted to colleges, universities, and school boards with hopes of developing educational programming and distance education programs (Nasseh, 1997).
However, slowly over time commercial radio absorbed most of the educational stations for finical reasons. NBC and CBS both originally incorporated educational programming into their daily schedules. These educational programs were of high quality and developed by educators. But by the mid-1940s educational programming became almost not existent (Fabos, 2001). In 1940 only one college-level course was offered through instructional radio and the course failed to attract any students (Nasseh, 1997).
Television
Television began to play a role in education in the 1950s and 1960s. Central to the great interest in the use of television was the belief that this particular medium had the potential to bring demonstrations to the classroom with minimal transitional difficulty, concentrated attention, and provided a change of pace to the classroom (Hew, 2004). However, similar to film, television lacked the content and quality for use in education (Fabos, 2001). In 1967 the Public Broadcasting Act was passed to create educational content for the underserved viewers (Fabos, 2001). This allowed programs for education programs such as Sesame Street and The Electric Company. However, these programs were not typically used in classroom settings.
Through cable television and recording devices, television has become more incorporated into education. Cable television allowed for greater variations of programming and more educational material. There are now channels specifically dedicated to weather, science, health, nature, and history. With access to VCRs and DVD recorders teachers are able to record educational information and play it during class. These programs can be paused for discussions or fast-forwarded through commercials.
Cable and satellite television has also allowed for greater opportunities in adult education. Cable and satellite television delivered many telecourses during the 1980s (Nasseh, 1997). “In the Fall of 1991, eighteen institutions, including the University of California, the University of Oklahoma, Penn State, and Washington State, used the Mind Extension University (MEU), Educational Network to deliver video course materials for independent study courses” (Nasseh, 1997). Slowly television technology has been integrated into education allowing for multimedia in the classroom with content still a concern.
Personal Computer
The personal computer has had great influence on education in the short time it has been available. In 1963, only 1% of the nation's secondary schools used computers for instructional purposes. By 1975, 55% of the schools had access and 23% were using computers primarily for instruction (Molnar, 1997). The use of personal computers for instructional purposes has since increased and by 2003, virtually all U.S. schools have some personal computers and the most recent ratio of students to computers was fewer than four to one (Hew, 2004). Several approaches are used to integrate these computers in the classroom.
Programmed instruction, originating from B. F. Skinners, allows for individualized instruction that produces immediate feedback for the student. This also allows students to achieve mastery of the topic by requiring students to continue until proficiency is achieved. James Kulik at the University of Michigan performed a meta-analysis on several hundred well-controlled studies in a wide variety of fields at the elementary, secondary, higher- and adult-education level. He found that computer-based education could increase scores from 10 to 20 percentile points and reduce time necessary to achieve goals by one-third (Molnar, 1997).
In addition, computers can also be used in simulations which real or imaginary situations cannot be brought into the learning environment (Schunk, 2004). Having students design and simulate a roller coaster with a computer program can aid students learning the physics of a roller coaster. Similarly computer games can be used to teach problem solving and thinking skills.
Furthermore, computer programming can help students develop thinking, reasoning and problem-solving skills in ways not possible with standard education (Schunk, 2004). In the early seventies, Seymour Papert developed a programming language, LOGO, to encourage rigorous thinking about mathematics (Molnar, 1997). Students instruct the computer using simple commands. The computer then uses those commands to create geometric designs. The program allows for creativity while teaching students geometry and problem solving skills.
Despite all the advantages of computers, many instructors have not fully implemented computer use into the daily classroom. Often technophobia among teachers slows integration of computers. Teachers, as a group, have little time to apply themselves to learning how to use computers and often have even less support from the school districts when they seek training (Morris, 2000). Time is another issue with computer use. While learning may be greatly enhanced by a computer game, computer lab access and time away from other subjects may not be available.
Internet
Developed in 1969, ARPAnet is the grandfather of the Internet. Designed as a computer version of the nuclear bomb shelter, ARPAnet protected the flow of information between military installations by creating a network of geographically separated computers that could exchange information (Bellis, 2004). In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee completed the original software for the World Wide Web based on a hypertext system. By Fall 2001, 98% of U.S. public schools connected to the Internet with a student-per-Internet-connected computer ratio of 4.3:1 (Hew, 2004).
"The Internet's pace of adoption eclipses all other technologies that preceded it. Radio was in existence 38 years before 50 million people tuned in; TV took 13 years to reach that benchmark. Sixteen years after the first PC kit came out, 50 million people were using one. Once it was opened to the general public, the Internet crossed that line in four years." - quote from the U.S. Department report "The Emerging Digital Economy" (Bellis, 2004).

In addition, accredited online high school and university classes are available and more flexible than traditional classrooms.


Technology and Society
While technology in education has primarily been focused on elementary and secondary students, this technology can also be applied to life-long learners. One such use is game playing for the aging brain. Games, specifically Brain Age, were popular gifts this past holiday season for older adults. Many adults are turning to games as a way to remain cognitively fit.
“Cognitive fitness” has become a buzzword as baby boomers are beginning to reach retirement age and start facing age-related issues such as Alzheimer’s disease. Research shows that increased stimulation of brain can help prevent or delay memory loss and other age-related cognitive disorders (Zelinski, 2006). However, it's not clear how much targeted brain exercises can prevent the onset of cognitive disorders in older adults. But some findings indicate that high cognitive ability is tied to a lower risk of Alzheimer's (Zelinski, 2006). One game developed for cognitive fitness is Brain Age.
Dr. Ryuta Kawashima, a Japanese neuroscientist, developed Brain Age for Nintendo DS. It features brain stimulating activities like simple math problems, counting people, drawing pictures and reading classical literature out loud. Derived from the speed and accuracy with which you complete the tasks your total performance culminates in your brain age. Robert Holt, of NPR, reviewed the game and stated that playing the game made him feel smarter but wasn’t sure if he was just getting better at the specific activities (Holt, 2006). While the initial test indicated Holt’s brain age to be near 70, regular play decreased his brain age to the late 20’s range.
         Joshua Green of Wired used Brain Age for four weeks. Following recommendation from neuroscientist, he also ate healthier, slept at least 8 hours and even showered with his eyes closed. Neuroscientists claim showering with your eyes closed can open up new neural pathways by challenging your brain's perception of movement and spatial orientation (Green, 2007). After his steady regiment of sleeping, eating properly, maintaining his balance in the shower and using Brain Age he decreased his brain age by ten years (Green, 2007).  However, Brain Age advantages are not just limited to adults.
         Children may not be the target audience for this game, but some of them will enjoy its tasks. However, kids will probably have difficulty with voice recognition part of the program, but it can be used as a tool to get them to pay closer attention to speaking slowly and clearly. Handwriting recognition can also be used to make kids take better care to write properly.
         Few people see much of a downside in brain-stimulating activities. Nevertheless, research is inconclusive on whether mental exercises can prevent dementia. Skeptics question whether beginning an active regimen of brainteasers late in life will do much to prevent brain disorders. Too much emphasis placed on cognitive fitness could stigmatize Alzheimer’s patients. Also, users have to buy into the whole concept and use brain games on a regular basis to receive the assumed benefit. If game players believe they will not get anything out of it from the start, they are not likely to continue to play.
Conclusion
After reviewing the history of technology, it has become apparent that new technologies need to have substance and quality content to remain relevant in education. While computers have become integrated into our everyday lives, their usage in education still has a long way to go. The computer needs to be viewed as a teaching tool to assist the instructor. Incorporating computers into everyday activities can be something as simple as searching the Internet for the local weather forecast (Starr, 2002). However, technology should be used to enhance the learning environment; not detract from it.
Computer use needs to be developed to enhance a deeper level of learning. Typing a report using a word processing program differs little from when students had to write it out by hand. It may take less time for the student but it does not foster a deeper level of learning. Similarly, computer-based learning can be individualized to the learner but it typically does not allow for deviations that can occur in student-teacher interactions. However, well-developed software could be created to allow for this. 
One project that might allow for greater technology immersion is the One Laptop per Child program. This programs goal is to develop a laptop for $100. This would make laptop available to all students. For this program to be effective, teachers will need to develop ways in which the computer can enhance learning. Otherwise, the laptop becomes a $100 notepad and pencil.

References
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