The Mummies of Northern Chile

(Published in an HKCEE Reviewer for English as a Second Language ESL. Published in 2007 by Witman Publishing, HK)





(1) When a water company broke ground in a Chile three decades ago, its workers never imagined they would discover an anthropologic find hailed to this day. It was 1983 and work went on as usual in the port town Arica, at the edge of the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. Arica, which stands where two rivers meet in the Pacific Ocean, has slender river valleys that stretch from the Andes to the sea. Anthropologically, these are excellent places to sustain civilisation. The city’s arid soil has already yielded several ancient burial sites in the past. This time around, however, physical anthropologist Bernardo Arriaza and his team from the University of Nevada had reason to be even more excited. Arriaza and his team were asked by the water company to come in after its workers’ shovels uncovered a plot of nearly 100 mummies that go back to 7000 years, older than the mummies of ancient Egypt. These were the Chinchorro mummies, the world’s earliest attempt known to date, to intentionally preserve the dead.

(2) The Archaeological Institute of America gave its views on the discovery saying the most interesting aspect of Chinchorro preservation practice was the democratic concept behind it. In a journal it published it observed, “In contrast to the Egyptians, who mummified kings and nobility, the Chinchorro show no discrimination in age, sex, or social status in the mummification of their dead. The mummification of children is particularly fascinating, since in cultures throughout the world they rarely get this kind of attention, especially those who never lived --- or the stillborn. The Chinchorro seemed to honour all human beings whether they contributed to society or not, paying particular attention to those who never achieved their potential. In the minds of the Chinchorro, life as a mummy may have been viewed as a second chance.”

(3) Men, women and children, including 8-inch long foetuses were mummified. However, unlike their regal Egyptian counterparts that often showed the dead in peaceful slumber, macabre masks were sculpted over the Chinchorro mummies. Their faces were reconstructed and short wigs were glued directly to their skulls. Inside, their bones were coupled with reeds, sticks, feathers and clay. Their skin was completely made over, painted bright red from head to toes, with the exception of the face which was painted with shiny black or brown manganese paint.

(4) The Chinchorros were an ancient gatherer people who lived along the pacific coasts in simple huts. It is believed they migrated from either the coast of southern Peru or from highlands of both present Chile and Peru. Using rocks and fish hooks made of shells, these fishermen collected plants along river mouths and hunted both sea mammals and wild birds. They did not develop monuments, buildings or cities. Their cultural materials were minimal. There were no written text unearthed. However, what the Chinchorros lacked in ceramic vessels, ornaments, metal tools and woven textiles they made up for with simple but efficient technology and their passion for preserving their dead.

(5) The anthropologists also discovered that the Chinchorro started their tradition by mummifying children first before their techniques later underwent various degrees of sophistication. No one exactly knew why this simple people transformed their dead into elaborate creations. Scientists believe that questions on when and how are easier to answer than why. Their theories are partly rooted on the belief that the Chinchorro are a very caring people. It had to be so to painstakingly invest so much energy in the mummification process.

(6) The Chinchorro ways are much like that of their Inca descendants, with mummies providing that vital link between this world and the next. During religious festivals the preserved bodies of Inka lords would be lavishly dressed, publicly displayed, and even given cups of chicha, or corn beer, to toast each other and the living. These were the scenes played out before missionaries working in Peru following the Spanish conquest. These practices were abhorred by the Spanish who expressed disgust over the Inca’s worship of the mummified remains of their ancestors. As such, many of the missionaries imposed the stop of these rituals. Back then, the failed to understand how the mummies played an integral role in the lives of Andean people. For this unique civilisation, death marked not the end of a life but a period of transition during which the souls of the deceased were to be cared for and entertained, easing their passage into the afterlife.

(7) Other cultures see the dead as someone who has “moved on”. Their rituals are meant to bid farewell after death. On the other hand, the Chinchorros considered their mummies as powerful living entities in a parallel world. To them, the dead continued to be part of the living society. These showed through the painstaking process taken to depict the dead to convey life amongst the living. More extensive excavations unearthed more information about this unique civilisation. For example, from the profiles archaeologists formed from the site, these experts concluded that the Chinchorros spiritual beliefs were not much different from the modern Christian saint statues with visible bodies but invisible spirits. Scientists further theorised that the Chinchorros believed in the afterlife and the concept of body-soul unity.

(8) Another theory is that they served as emissaries between the world and the next, interceding before the gods on behalf of the living, asking for fertility, good health and bountiful harvests. Yet some believed that behind the practice of preserving the Chinchorro dead is the need to quell fear of what lies beyond death. In keeping this practice alive, the living Chinchorro is soothed by the knowledge that once one dies someday, those he leaves behind will always remember him. It may have likewise served to ease the loss of a loved one. How could they be so far away when they are here with us sitting, eating and drinking with us from day to day? In this regard, mummification may be seen as responsible in keeping Chinchorro communities whole.


1. In paragraph xx, the line “Anthropologically, these are excellent places to sustain civilisation.” means …
A. archaeologists believe water is a prerequisite in starting settlements and civilisations.
B. travel by water was highly popular back then.
C. most civilisations discovered by archaeologists showed people then were mostly fisher folk.
D. trade and industry is developed in civilisations by water.

Inference question: The previous sentence described the location, Arica as a place “which stands where two rivers meet in the Pacific Ocean, has slender river valleys that stretch from the Andes to the sea”.



2. According to paragraph xx, the discovery …
A. came as no surprise to palaeontologists and the residents of Arica.
B. was not the first of its kind.
C. was a cause for excitement for Bernardo Arriaza and his team from the University of Nevada.
D. was a sacred burial spot with 100 mummies dating back 7000 years.

Gist question: Options A, B and C may be true, but the idea of the paragraph is best summed up by Option D.



3. In line xx, ‘it’ refers to the …
A. democratic concept
B. Archaeological Institute of America
C. preservation practice
D. discovery

Reference question: ‘It’ is a pronoun. Pronouns are words that stand in place of nouns or noun phrases, usually to avoid repetition. Logically, the sentence should still retain its meaning if the use of the noun is retained. Option B and D do not make sense in this context. Likewise, ‘it’ can not serve a reflexive function referring to ‘democratic concept.



4. In Paragraph xx, “macabre” means …
A. disturbing, gruesome
B. common, without nobility
C. creative and colourful
D. inappropriate

Vocabulary question: Students should be able to identify the contrast presented by the preceding phrase, ‘unlike their regal Egyptian counterparts that often showed the dead in peaceful slumber’.




5. The purpose of paragraph xx is to show that…
A. There is a significant difference between the Egyptian and Chinchorro mummies.
B. The Chinchorro mummies were reconstructed in great detail.
C. The Chinchorro people were artistic and creative.
D. The Chinchorro show no discrimination in age, sex, or social status in the mummification of their dead.

Gist question: Options A, C and D are inferences we can make from the paragraph. Option B is the idea supported by the procedure of reconstruction presented.



6. In line xx, ‘life as a mummy may have been viewed as a second chance’ was inferred from what sentence within the same paragraph?
A. “The mummification of children is particularly fascinating, since in cultures throughout the world they receive little if any mortuary attention, especially those who never lived--the stillborn.”
B. “The Chinchorro seemed to honour all human beings whether they contributed to society or not, paying particular attention to those who never achieved their potential.”
C. “Experts agree that the most interesting aspect of Chinchorro preservation practice was the democratic concept behind it.”
D. “In contrast to the Egyptians, who mummified kings and nobility, the Chinchorro show no discrimination in age, sex, or social status in the mummification of their dead“

Inference question: The dead are given a second chance when they are nevertheless honoured, ‘whether they contributed to society or not’.



7. In line xx, ‘mouths’ mean …
A. to speak or say out.
B. the spaces between lips.
C. an opening through which an area is emptied or filled.
D. none of the above

Vocabulary question: mouth is used figuratively to describe the location. This means that the plants were along the opening of the river.



8. In line xx, “unearthed” means …
A. ethereal, spiritual
B. dig up from the ground
C. desecrated
D. not of this earth

Vocabulary question: A lead in is already provided in line xx ‘When a water company broke ground in a Chile three decades ago’.




9. In line xx, “unearthed” means …
E. taken out and lifted from the ground
F. revealed
G. desecrated
H. none of the above

Vocabulary question: In this sentence, ‘unearth’ is used figuratively. Information revealed led to more knowledge about the ancient Chinchorro people.



10. The article does not state …
A. that children were the first to be mummified by the Chinchorro.
B. that mummification technology evolved to later extend the preserving the dead of other age groups.
C. That mummification became more sophisticated through time.
D. The stages of development of Chinchorro mummification techniques.

Reference question: A is supported by the line, ‘The anthropologists also discovered that the Chinchorro started their tradition by mummifying children first’. C is supported by the line, ‘…their techniques later underwent various degrees of sophistication’. We know that mummification preserved the dead in other age groups (paragraph xx)



11. In lines xx-xx, we can reasonably infer that …
A. the Chinchorro were not skilled in engineering and architecture.
B. the Chinchorro only thought about their dead.
C. the Chinchorro used their time differently from other civilisations.
D. the Chinchorro people did not have comfortable clothing.

Inference question: to reasonably infer means to arrive at some opinion backed up by statements presented. A, B and D are not supported by any information in the article.



12. According to paragraph xx, missionaries who once worked in Peru condemned the practice of the Inca because …
A. they were not natives of the land.
B. they still had not understood how the mummies played an integral role in the lives of Andean people.
C. they were intolerant of other people’s different culture.
D. the dead should not be lavishly dressed nor publicly displayed.

Factual question: It was already acknowledged that no one knew why the Chinchorro transformed the dead. In the line that followed, the writer adds that the Spanish ‘failed to understand how the mummies played an integral role in the lives of Andean people.’ (line xx)


13. In line xx, “abhorred” means …
A. detested
B. tolerated
C. ignored
D. encouraged

Vocabulary question: When the Spanish expressed disgust over the Inca’s worship of mummified they neither (B) tolerated nor (D) encouraged the practice. Option C is likewise incorrect because they did not ignore the practice if they ‘imposed the stop of these rituals’.


14. In line xx, ‘emissaries’ means …
A. gods of the earth
B. messengers sent for a specific purpose
C. prayer sacrifices
D. holy offerings

Vocabulary question: Students should be able to identify the meaning within the context of the sentence. A messenger is a middle man between two parties, in this case, the living and the gods. The purpose is specified as, ‘interceding before the gods on behalf of the living, asking for fertility, good health and bountiful harvests’.


15. In line xx, ‘them’ refers to …
A. powerful living entities.
B. the Chinchorros.
C. the mummies.
D. the living society.

Reference question: According to the sentence, to ‘them’ the dead continued to be a part of the living. This belief of the Chinchorros is reinforced several times throughout the article.


16. From line xx, we can assume that …
A. scientists are still trying to find out why the Chinchorro people performed mummifications.
B. palaeontology relies on guesswork.
C. there are inconsistencies in the findings of the University of Nevada.
D. evaluation of the Chinchorro site proceded slowly.

Inference question: Lines xx-xx outlined several theories developed so far. Since nothing was presented as a conclusion, one may infer that analysing the mummification process of the Chinchorro people is a work in progress.


17. In line xx, ‘each other’ refers to …
A. the mummies.
B. the Chinchorro
C. cups of chicha or corn beer
D. the preserved bodies of Inca lords

Reference question: ‘Each other’ functions as a reciprocal pronoun to show the exchange of a similar action in the phrase, ‘to toast each other and the living’. Since one party is already the ‘living’ or the Chinchorro, the other must the preserved bodies of Inca lords, since this is the only other party mentioned in the same sentence.