Protein deficiency among women

"What
are the main health risks of protein deficiency in young women and
how could this be solved?"

(Research
Project, Final
Draft)

Yevgeniya
Migranova

ID201396782

Tutor: John Beck

Date
of submission: 4 April 2014

         Word
count: 2195          

University
Preparatory Certificate, CPS, NU Astana

Contents

Abstract.....................................................................................................................................
3

Introduction..............................................................................................................................
3

Structure
and functions of
protein.........................................................................................
4

General
protein requirements for
women.............................................................................
5

Protein
deficiency definition and
consequences....................................................................
7

Extent
of protein deficiency among young
women...............................................................
8

Possible
solutions for protein deficiency
elimination.............................................................9

Conclusion
and
recommendations.........................................................................................10

Reflective
component:
...........................................................................................................
12

Reference
list:
........................................................................................................................
13

Abstract

Protein
is one of the main three macronutrients, which are essential for
healthy functioning of human organism. Despite the fact that
high-protein diets became popular, there is still an issue of protein
malnutrition among young women aged 16 to 40. Seemingly, protein
deficiency could be eliminated by simply altering diet in order to
fulfil protein requirements; however, modern young women are supposed
to work, be educated, give birth to children, engage in household and
develop multilaterally. Maintaining healthy diet is quite important,
but many women find it difficult to adapt busy schedule and healthy
nutritional habits; therefore, this essay offers powder protein
supplements as an option for elimination of protein deficiency among
adult woman. In case of adolescent girls, it is recommended to give
preference to the diet alterations, which could be both, effective
and beneficial for health.

Introduction

Protein
is a building block of all the living substances. Around 20% of the
human body is made of protein. There are 20 to 25 amino acids, most
of them could be obtained with diet and others are made by the human
organism (Stanfield 2009). According to World Health Organization
(1973), protein requirements for men and women does not vary
significantly; however, there are periods of life when women should
consume more protein. Also, women with busy schedule don't get all
the essential amino acids due to compensating full-value meals by
consuming carbohydrate-rich snacks. This paper is aimed to
investigate the rate of protein deficiency in young women, between 16
and 40. Protein is essential nutrient for healthy functioning of the
organism. Consequently, it is necessary to discuss impact of protein
deficiency on physiological processes in the body. Negative effects
of protein deficiency should be avoided by consumption of sufficient
amount of protein and amino acids. This essay will introduce one
high-protein meal per day as a solution for adolescents and powder
protein formulas as the solution for protein malnutrition among adult
women. In addition, it will discuss possible limitations of the
solution.

Structure
and functions of protein

Proteins
are organic compounds arranged by complex structures of one or more
long chains of amino acids. Stanfield (2009) further explains that
there are around 20 to 25 essential amino acids that make up most of
the proteins required for building body tissues. About half of these
amino acids can be made by the organism independently, while some
amino acids can't be produced by organism at all or in required
amounts. These are called essential amino acids and people have to
obtain them through the diet. However, nonessential amino acid could
occasionally become essential. Usually this happens when the diet of
a person fails to provide necessary amino acids or due to illness or
injury (Long 1979). According to Reeds (2000), this class of amino
acids could be called conditionally essential amino acids. During
digestion process the organism breaks proteins down in order to
obtain these amino acids and rearrange them into proteins required by
the human body. These proteins are consequently used for making some
body tissue cells, hormones, enzymes, hemoglobin, etc. (Sizer 2010).
Therefore, daily protein intake has to supply the body with protein
not only in terms of amount sufficiency, but also it has to provide
the body with a full range of required amino acids. Failure to
fulfill protein need of organism could lead to protein deficiency, in
some cases called protein malnutrition.

General
protein requirements for women

According
to the study of World Health Organization (1973), protein
requirements between men and women does not vary significantly for
average men and women; however, proteins needs increase during
menstruation, lactation and pregnancy. In addition, women, who do
sports, require more protein according to the load of their sports
activities. There is a method for calculating daily protein
requirement called Dietary Reference Intakes (NAP 2005). According to
it, protein requirement for girls aged 14-18 equals to 0.85
grams/kg/day and 0.80 grams/kg/day for adults. The Figure 1, acquired
from the study by Fulgony (2008) represents optimal protein intake in
grams per kg of body weight for both sexes. It could be evident that
adolescents require slightly more protein than adults. While the
Figure 2 represents that more mature people need more protein than
adolescents as a proportion to total calorie intake. From this data
it is possible to state that people should pay attention not only to
amounts of protein consumed, but also to the proportions of daily
calorie distribution.

Source:
Fulgony 2008.

Another
important aspect is the nitrogen, which is the functional group of
all the amino acids. Homeostasis of the organism tries to keep stable
levels of nitrogen for the efficient production of body proteins. The
study by Calloway (1982) indicates that during the menstruation women
lose more nitrogen with urine and also the loss of hemoglobin, which
is the main constituent of red blood cells, along with the blood;
therefore, more protein is required in order to fulfill blood and
nitrogen losses. Moreover, according to Buffenstein (1995) and Fong
(1993), general energy-intake for women increases during menstruation
phase. Possible counterargument is that duration and intensity of
menstruation varies from woman to woman; therefore, it could be
acceptable to suggest that ladies with continuous and heavy flow
should be more concerned, while for women with shorter period are not
affected significantly enough to be concerned. The exact data
predicting percentage of the increase in protein consumption for
women in a menstruation period was not found during the research
process of this paper; therefore, it appears that there is lack of
research in this area and more research should be conducted.

Another
group of women that should be planning their diet more thoroughly are
pregnant women (Sizer 2010). Sufficient protein supply supports
healthy development of the fetus and good pregnancy outcome;
consequently, they have to consume 1.1 grams per kg per day. The
statistics given by World Health Organization (2002) states that the
females with highest protein intakes (in reasonable limits around 100
grams of protein/day) had the best pregnancy outcome. Lactating women
have to consume 1.05 grams of protein per kilogram of weight or
additional 21 grams of protein per day approximately, because some of
the body protein and nitrogen is used for the production of milk (NAP
2005).

Women
doing a lot of exercise should consume more protein due to nitrogen
and muscular protein losses, because during these sports activities
muscular tissue proteins are constantly degraded and synthesized
(Phillips 2004). As a result, women concerned about their health
should calculate average daily protein requirement themselves or
consult professional nutritionist, because in most cases protein
deficiency is not severe enough to have distinct symptoms.

Protein
deficiency definition and consequences

Protein
deficiency could be defined as a shortage of body protein in general
or as a shortage of one or more essential amino acids caused by
protein-poor diet. In terms of current study, this protein deficiency
must be distinguished from such diseases as marasmus and kwashiorkor,
which are the consequences of severe protein and food-energy
starvation. These are mainly issues of impoverished countries;
therefore, aspects of these diseases are not relevant to this project
(Sizer 2010). According to the Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and
Nutrition by Caballero and editors (2003), protein deficiency can be
caused by irregular food habits, diseases or continuous protein loss,
such as bleeding or chronic renal disease. This research will take
into account protein malnutrition among young women, between 16 and
40, primarily caused by inadequate diet.

Protein
deficiency can result in several unpleasant conditions. According to
McFarland (2014), splitting hair ends and nails, could indicate at
the protein deficiency, because they are made from protein called
keratin; therefore, organism sacrifices with nails and hair in order
to supply more vital organs with protein. This knowledge could raise
awareness among women and serve as a good protein deficiency
indicator. Immune system also depends on protein, because production
of antibodies, which are immune system molecules fighting the
disease, requires protein. Sizer (2010) goes on to explain that
insignificant protein deficiency will not make human body extremely
vulnerable to diseases; nevertheless, worsened by such factors as
stress or cold, this might have notable significance. Other protein
cells required for healthy body functioning are enzymes and
hemoglobin molecules. According to Stanfield (2009), insufficient
protein leads to formation of sickle shaped hemoglobin cells instead
of normal ones, which can lead to such disease as anemia. There are
also globular proteins called enzymes, which act as catalysts for
reactions taking place in the human body. Most of the hormones are
made from amino acids and their importance cannot be underestimated
because homeostasis mainly depends on them (Caballero 2003). Usually,
protein deficiency among modern women is not too critical; therefore,
symptoms of protein deficiency are not easily identified.
Nonetheless, women should pay attention to their skin, hair and nails
condition, as an indicator of health condition. 

Extent
of protein deficiency among young women

The
extent of protein deficiency is a controversial question. According
to the UK Department of Health, daily intake of protein required by
women is 46 g per day, which can be easily fulfilled (NHS 2011).
Nonetheless, analyzing the data obtained during the research process,
it could be sensible to conclude that this is true only for healthy
women with a weight around 57 kilos, because if we divide 46 g by
0.80 g, which is recommended amount of protein per kilogram of body
weight, this is the obtained value.

Source:
Moshfegh 2005

According
to data by Moshfegh (2005), 14 percent of girls aged 14-18 consume
less protein, than required; among women aged 19-50 only around 5
percent of women are not getting enough protein. The numbers could
seem to be small; however, this data means that every 7^th
adolescent girl and every 20^th
adult woman is experiencing protein deficiency. Moreover, the data
was collected in 2005 and almost 10 years passed since then; it
should be taken into consideration that fast food and
high-carbohydrate snacks gained popularity over these years, which
could have exacerbated protein deficiency levels; however, no current
data was found during the research. Consequently, additional primary
research should be carried out regarding nutrient consumption and
deficiency levels across the developed world. While current research
should offer possible solution for this target group of women, who do
not get enough protein through their diet.

Possible
solutions for protein deficiency elimination

There
are two possible solutions which will be discussed in current
research: one of them is more suitable for adolescent girls and
another is more suitable adult women. First of all, tendency to
follow unreasonable diets and a habit of skipping breakfast could
lead to protein deficiency and in some cases serves as an obesity
stimulator. According to Leidy (2013), girls who skip breakfast tend
to consume carbohydrate-rich snacks during the evening, while girls
obtaining high-protein breakfasts experienced less desire to eat
unhealthy snacks and preferred healthy alternative, such as fruits.
The research team, Leidy (2013), has come to the conclusion that
"addition of breakfast, particularly one rich in protein, might be
a useful strategy to improve satiety, reduce food motivation and
reward, and improve diet quality in overweight or obese teenage
girls". However, it is possible to suggest that this could be
related not only to obese girls, because mechanism of influence of
proteins on satiety and feeling of hunger does not depend on weight.
Considering that most teenagers of school age are able to find enough
time for eating a couple of boiled eggs a day which would add around
12 g of protein, as an example. There are various tables available
online indicating on protein abundance in various products.

The
solution more appropriate for adult women is a consumption of protein
supplements, such as protein powder formula; however, these should be
used with care, because one serving of the protein shake contains
approximately 20 grams of protein and one time overconsumption could
lead to diarrhea (NHS 2005). Long-term protein excessive intake might
lead to bone demineralization and bone density reduction (Beasley
2010). It is also important to read labels attentively in order to
buy a protein shake containing variety of amino acids without excess
of carbohydrates. Some could find protein supplements fairly
expensive; however prices vary and they do not always depend on
quality, rather than on brand, which emphasizes importance of label
reading. This solution fits busy women, who do not have enough time
for cooking protein rich dishes and those, who do sports regularly.
Also protein shakes could be inappropriate solution for pregnant and
lactating women because fetus has to obtain full range of vitamins
and nutrients for proper development (WHO 2002). Others could
increase protein intake by simply adding more protein rich products
into diet.

Conclusion
& recommendations

In
conclusion, it could be important to emphasize that protein
is a vital part of human nutrition and its value should not be
underestimated. The essay has shown that there is an issue of protein
deficiency among a significant range of women. Since protein has
direct influence on building processes of the organism and such
particles as hemoglobin, hormone cells, enzymes, etc., it is quite
important for people to look after their nutritional habits and
preferably note down all the consumed products including the value of
macronutrients, such as proteins. Results of the research imply that
women should be especially attentive to their diets during pregnancy
and lactation. There are multiple options of increasing protein
consumption for women, who have found themselves to experience
protein deficiency. The option for adolescent girls suggests making
one of the meals protein rich (preferably breakfast) or altering diet
in general. Changes in diet are also acceptable for adult women;
however, women, who are unable to do it, could use protein
supplements as an alternative. Finding appropriate data for current
topic of research was problematic at some points; therefore, it is
recommended to conduct more research on protein requirements at
different stages of menstrual cycle and refresh the data on the
percentage of protein deficiency among people of various ages and
sexes.

Reflective
component

I
have always been interested in sports and nutrition field because my
father is a personal fitness trainer and my whole life I have been
surrounded by healthy lifestyle related books and magazines. My
father has always emphasized importance of protein in diet and at the
age of 16, when I started to follow his recommendations and exercise,
I have noticed that my general well-bein\g improved a lot. Sadly
enough, after moving to the Nazarbayev University I experienced lack
of protein, especially meat. Most meals offered at university
cafeteria are high in carbohydrates and we don't normally get much
meat. I have also brought my protein powder supplements from home
because I expected university gym to be opened in November and I
normally drink protein shake after I work out. However, the gym was
never opened and I consumed a serving every evening in order to
compensate lack of proteins in diet. And numerous people asked me
questions about protein supplements, which I found silly; for
example, most people thought that protein supplements can make you
muscular just if you take them. Therefore, it was in my interest to
raise awareness in current topic among fellow students.

Initially
I wanted to write a research, which would refute most common myth
about protein supplements and its influence on female organism.
However, during research process my topic has changed to a protein
deficiency among modern women, and I found this topic even more
important for society, because it raises awareness of protein
importance and offers reasonable solutions for the issue of protein
deficiency. At some point of my research I found it difficult to
collect current data on protein deficiency rates, which made me even
more interested in primary research. I am generally satisfied by my
research paper; however, there is more information I would like to
include and word limit of 3000 words would be more appropriate for
writing this research project.

Reference
list:

Beasley,
Jeanette M.,
Laura
E. Ichikawa, Brett A. Ange, Leslie Spangler, Andrea Z. LaCroix, Susan
M. Ott, and Delia Scholes. 2010. "Is Protein Intake Associated With
Bone Mineral Density In Young Women?" The
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 91:
1311-6. Accessed January 17, 2014.
http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/91/5/1311.full.pdf+html

Buffenstein,
Rochelle. 1995. "Food intake and the menstrual cycle: a
retrospective analysis, with implications for appetite research."
Physiology & behavior 58.6: 1067-1077.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0031938495020039

Caballero,
Benjamin, and eds. 2003. Encyclopedia
of food sciences and nutrition.
2^nd
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Accessed January 23, 2014.

Calloway,
D. Howes, and Mindy S. Kurzer. 1982. "Menstrual cycle and protein
requirements of women." Journal
of Nutrition
112 (2): 356-66. Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of
California, Berkeley.

Fong,
Alice KH, and Mary J. Kretsch. 1993. "Changes in dietary intake,
urinary nitrogen, and urinary volume across the menstrual cycle."
The American journal of clinical nutrition 57.1: 43-46.           
http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/57/1/43.full.pdf+html

Fulgoni,
Victor L. 2008. "Current protein intake in America: analysis of the
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2003-2004". The
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
91: 1311-6. The USA: American Society for Nutrition.

Leidy,
Heather J., Laura C. Ortinau, Steve M. Douglas, and Heather A.
Hoertel. 2013. "Beneficial Effects of a Higher-Protein Breakfast
on the Appetitive, Hormonal, and Neural Signals Controlling Energy
Intake Regulation in Overweight/Obese, "Breakfast-Skipping,"
Late-Adolescent Girls." The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
97: 677-88. Accessed January 15, 2014.
http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/97/4/677.full.pdf+html

Long,
Calvin L. 1979. "Metabolic response to injury and illness:
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nitrogen balance." Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition
3.6: 452-456.

McFarland,
Judy Lindberg. N.d. "Protein is important for beautiful skin, hair
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Moshfegh,
Alanna; Goldman, Joseph; and Cleveland, Linda. 2005. What
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National
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Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

NHS.
2011. Supplements.Who
needs them?.
http://www.nhs.uk/news/2011/05May/Documents/BtH_supplements.pdf

Phillips,
Stuart M. 2004. Protein
requirements and supplementation in strength sports.
Vol. 20. United States: Elsevier Inc.
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Reeds,
Peter J. 2000. "Dispensable and indispensable amino acids for
humans." The
Journal of nutrition 130.7:
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Sizer,
Frances S. and Ellie Whitney. 2010. Nutrition:
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Stanfield,
Peggy, and Y. H. Hui. 2009. Nutrition
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World
Health Organization. 1973. Energy
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World
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15